Introduction
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Who is What Works in Conservation for?
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The Conservation Evidence project
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Which conservation interventions are included?
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How we review the literature
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What does What Works in Conservation include?
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Expert assessment of the evidence
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Categorization of interventions
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How to use What Works in Conservation
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1.
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AMPHIBIAN CONSERVATION
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1.1
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Threat: Residential and commercial development
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Legal protection of species
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Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites
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Restrict herbicide, fungicide and pesticide use on and around ponds on golf courses
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1.2
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Threat: Agriculture
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1.2.1
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Engage farmers and other volunteers
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Engage landowners and other volunteers to manage land for amphibians
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Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
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1.2.2
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Terrestrial habitat management
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Manage silviculture practices in plantations
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Manage cutting regime
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Manage grazing regime
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Maintain or restore hedges
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Plant new hedges
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Reduced tillage
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1.2.3
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Aquatic habitat management
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Manage ditches
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Exclude domestic animals or wild hogs from ponds by fencing
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1.3
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Threat: Energy production and mining
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Artificially mist habitat to keep it damp
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1.4
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Threat: Transportation and service corridors
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Close roads during seasonal amphibian migration
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Modify gully pots and kerbs
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Install barrier fencing along roads
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Install culverts or tunnels as road crossings
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Use signage to warn motorists
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Use humans to assist migrating amphibians across roads
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1.5
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Threat: Biological resource use
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1.5.1
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Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals
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Reduce impact of amphibian trade
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Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
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Commercially breed amphibians for the pet trade
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Use amphibians sustainably
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1.5.2
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Logging and wood harvesting
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Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest
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Use shelterwood harvesting instead of clearcutting
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Leave coarse woody debris in forests
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Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
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Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests
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Use leave-tree harvesting instead of clearcutting
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Harvest groups of trees instead of clearcutting
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Thin trees within forests
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1.6
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Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance
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Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance
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1.7
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Threat: Natural system modifications
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Regulate water levels
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Mechanically remove mid-storey or ground vegetation
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Use herbicides to control mid-storey or ground vegetation
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Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (forests)
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Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (grassland)
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1.8
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Threat: Invasive and other problematic species
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1.8.1
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Reduce predation by other species
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Remove or control fish by drying out ponds
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Remove or control fish population by catching
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Remove or control invasive bullfrogs
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Remove or control invasive viperine snake
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Remove or control mammals
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Remove or control fish using Rotenone
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Exclude fish with barriers
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Encourage aquatic plant growth as refuge against fish predation
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Remove or control non-native crayfish
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1.8.2
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Reduce competition with other species
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Reduce competition from native amphibians
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Remove or control invasive Cuban tree frogs
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Remove or control invasive cane toads
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1.8.3
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Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
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Control invasive plants
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Prevent heavy usage/exclude wildfowl from aquatic habitat
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1.8.4
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Reduce parasitism and disease – chytridiomycosis
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Use temperature treatment to reduce infection
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Use antifungal treatment to reduce infection
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Add salt to ponds
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Immunize amphibians against infection
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Remove the chytrid fungus from ponds
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Sterilize equipment when moving between amphibian sites
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Treating amphibians in the wild or pre-release
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Use gloves to handle amphibians
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Use antibacterial treatment to reduce infection
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Use antifungal skin bacteria or peptides to reduce infection
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Use zooplankton to remove zoospores
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1.8.5
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Reduce parasitism and disease – ranaviruses
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Sterilize equipment to prevent ranaviruses
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1.9
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Threat: Pollution
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1.9.1
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Agricultural pollution
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Create walls or barriers to exclude pollutants
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Plant riparian buffer strips
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Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use
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Prevent pollution from agricultural lands or sewage treatment facilities entering watercourses
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1.9.2
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Industrial pollution
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Add limestone to water bodies to reduce acidification
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Augment ponds with ground water to reduce acidification
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1.10
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Threat: Climate change and severe weather
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Create microclimate and microhabitat refuges
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Maintain ephemeral ponds
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Deepen ponds to prevent desiccation
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Use irrigation systems for amphibian sites
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Artificially shade ponds to prevent desiccation
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Protect habitat along elevational gradients
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Provide shelter habitat
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1.11
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Habitat protection
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Retain buffer zones around core habitat
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Protect habitats for amphibians
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Retain connectivity between habitat patches
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1.12
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Habitat restoration and creation
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1.12.1
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Terrestrial habitat
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Replant vegetation
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Clear vegetation
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Create artificial hibernacula or aestivation sites
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Create refuges
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Restore habitat connectivity
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Change mowing regime
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Create habitat connectivity
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1.12.2
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Aquatic habitat
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Create ponds (amphibians in general)
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Create ponds (frogs)
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Create ponds (natterjack toads)
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Create ponds (salamanders including newts)
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Create wetlands
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Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds
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Restore wetlands
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Create ponds (great crested newts)
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Create ponds (green toads)
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Create ponds (toads)
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Remove specific aquatic plants
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Restore ponds
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Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading
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Add nutrients to new ponds as larvae food source
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Add specific plants to aquatic habitats
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Add woody debris to ponds
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Create refuge areas in aquatic habitats
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1.13
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Species management
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1.13.1
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Translocate amphibians
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Translocate amphibians (amphibians in general)
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Translocate amphibians (great crested newts)
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Translocate amphibians (natterjack toads)
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Translocate amphibians (salamanders including newts)
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Translocate amphibians (toads)
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Translocate amphibians (wood frogs)
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Translocate amphibians (frogs)
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1.13.2
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Captive breeding, rearing and releases
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Release captive-bred individuals (amphibians in general)
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Release captive-bred individuals (frogs)
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Breed amphibians in captivity (frogs)
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Breed amphibians in captivity (harlequin toads)
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Breed amphibians in captivity (Mallorcan midwife toad)
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Breed amphibians in captivity (salamanders including newts)
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Breed amphibians in captivity (toads)
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Head-start amphibians for release
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Release captive-bred individuals (Mallorcan midwife toad)
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Release captive-bred individuals (toads)
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Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding
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Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release
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Release captive-bred individuals (salamanders including newts)
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Freeze sperm or eggs for future use
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Release captive-bred individuals (green and golden bell frogs)
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1.14
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Education and awareness raising
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Engage volunteers to collect amphibian data (citizen science)
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Provide education programmes about amphibians
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Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information
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2.
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BAT CONSERVATION
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2.1
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Threat: Residential and commercial development
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Protect brownfield sites
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Provide foraging habitat in urban areas
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Change timing of building works
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Conserve existing roosts within developments
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Conserve old buildings or structures as roosting sites for bats within developments
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Create alternative roosts within buildings
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Maintain bridges and retain crevices for roosting
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Retain or relocate access points to bat roosts
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Retain or replace existing bat commuting routes within development
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2.2
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Threat: Agriculture
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2.2.1
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Land use change
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Protect or create wetlands as foraging habitat for bats
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Retain or plant trees on agricultural land to replace foraging habitat
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Conserve old buildings or structures on agricultural land as roosting sites for bats
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Retain old or dead trees with hollows and cracks as roosting sites for bats on agricultural land
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Retain or replace existing bat commuting routes on agricultural land
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2.2.2
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Intensive farming
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Convert to organic farming
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Encourage agroforestry
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Introduce agri-environment schemes
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2.3
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Threat: Energy production – wind turbines
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Switch off turbines at low wind speeds to reduce bat fatalities
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Deter bats from turbines using ultrasound
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Deter bats from turbines using radar
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Automatically switch off wind turbines when bat activity is high
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Close off nacelles on wind turbines to prevent roosting bats
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Leave a minimum distance between turbines and habitat features used by bats
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Modify turbine design to reduce bat fatalities
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Modify turbine placement to reduce bat fatalities
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Remove turbine lighting to avoid attracting bats
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2.4
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Threat: Energy production – mining
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Legally protect bat hibernation sites in mines from reclamation
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Provide artificial hibernacula to replace roosts lost in reclaimed mines
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Relocate bats from reclaimed mines to new hibernation sites
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2.5
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Threat: Transportation and service corridors
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Install underpasses as road crossing structures for bats
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Divert bats to safe crossing points with plantings or fencing
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Install bat gantries or bat bridges as road crossing structures for bats
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Install overpasses as road crossing structures for bats
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Deter bats with lighting
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Install green bridges as road crossing structures for bats
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Install hop-overs as road crossing structures for bats
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Replace or improve habitat for bats around roads
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2.6
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Threat: Biological resource use
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2.6.1
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Hunting
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Educate local communities about bats and hunting
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Introduce and enforce legislation to control hunting of bats
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Introduce sustainable harvesting of bats
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2.6.2
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Guano harvesting
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Introduce and enforce legislation to regulate the harvesting of bat guano
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Introduce sustainable harvesting of bat guano
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2.6.3
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Logging and wood harvesting
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Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas
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Use selective harvesting/reduced impact logging instead of clearcutting
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Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
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Retain residual tree patches in logged areas
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Thin trees within forests
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Manage woodland or forest edges for bats
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Replant native trees
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Retain deadwood/snags within forests for roosting bats
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2.7
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Threat: Human disturbance – caving and tourism
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Impose restrictions on cave visits
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Use cave gates to restrict public access
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Educate the public to reduce disturbance to hibernating bats
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Legally protect bat hibernation sites
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Maintain microclimate at underground hibernation/roost sites
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Provide artificial hibernacula for bats to replace disturbed sites
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2.8
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Threat: Natural system modification – natural fire and fire suppression
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Use prescribed burning
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2.9
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Threat: Invasive species
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2.9.1
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Invasive species
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Remove invasive plant species
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Translocate to predator or disease free areas
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Control invasive predators
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2.9.2
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White-nose syndrome
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Control anthropogenic spread
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Cull infected bats
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Increase population resistance
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Modify cave environments to increase bat survival
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2.10
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Threat: Pollution
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2.10.1
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Domestic and urban waste water
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Change effluent treatments of domestic and urban waste water
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2.10.2
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Agricultural and forestry effluents
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Introduce legislation to control use
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Change effluent treatments used in agriculture and forestry
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2.10.3
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Light and noise pollution
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Leave bat roosts, roost entrances and commuting routes unlit
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Minimize excess light pollution
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Restrict timing of lighting
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Use low pressure sodium lamps or use UV filters
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Impose noise limits in proximity to roosts and bat habitats
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2.10.4
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Timber treatments
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Use mammal safe timber treatments in roof spaces
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Restrict timing of treatment
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2.11
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Providing artificial roost structures for bats
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Provide artificial roost structures for bats
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2.12
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Education and awareness raising
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Provide training to professionals
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Educate homeowners about building and planning laws
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Educate to improve public perception and raise awareness
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3.
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BIRD CONSERVATION
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95
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3.1
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Habitat protection
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97
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Legally protect habitats for birds
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Provide or retain un-harvested buffer strips
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Ensure connectivity between habitat patches
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3.2
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Education and awareness raising
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Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information
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Provide bird feeding materials to families with young children
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Enhance bird taxonomy skills through higher education and training
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Provide training to conservationists and land managers on bird ecology and conservation
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3.3
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Threat: Residential and commercial development
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101
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Angle windows to reduce bird collisions
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Mark windows to reduce bird collisions
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101
|
|
3.4
|
Threat: Agriculture
|
103
|
|
|
3.4.1
|
All farming systems
|
103
|
|
|
|
Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
|
104
|
|
|
|
Provide (or retain) set-aside areas in farmland
|
105
|
|
|
|
Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
|
105
|
|
|
|
Increase the proportion of natural/semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
|
106
|
|
|
|
Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
|
106
|
|
|
|
Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
|
106
|
|
|
|
Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
|
107
|
|
|
|
Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
|
107
|
|
|
|
Leave refuges in fields during harvest
|
107
|
|
|
|
Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using bird scarers)
|
108
|
|
|
|
Relocate nests at harvest time to reduce nestling mortality
|
108
|
|
|
|
Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
|
108
|
|
|
|
Control scrub on farmland
|
108
|
|
|
|
Offer per clutch payment for farmland birds
|
109
|
|
|
|
Manage hedges to benefit wildlife
|
109
|
|
|
|
Plant new hedges
|
109
|
|
|
|
Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using repellents)
|
109
|
|
|
|
Take field corners out of management
|
110
|
|
|
|
Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
|
110
|
|
|
|
Cross compliance standards for all subsidy payments
|
110
|
|
|
|
Food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming
|
110
|
|
|
|
Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit birds
|
110
|
|
|
|
Plant in-field trees
|
110
|
|
|
|
Protect in-field trees
|
110
|
|
|
|
Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)
|
110
|
|
|
|
Support or maintain low-intensity agricultural systems
|
110
|
|
|
|
Tree pollarding, tree surgery
|
110
|
|
|
3.4.2
|
Arable farming
|
111
|
|
|
|
Create ‘skylark plots’ (undrilled patches in cereal fields)
|
111
|
|
|
|
Leave overwinter stubbles
|
112
|
|
|
|
Leave uncropped cultivated margins or fallow land (includes lapwing and stone curlew plots)
|
112
|
|
|
|
Sow crops in spring rather than autumn
|
113
|
|
|
|
Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
|
113
|
|
|
|
Reduce tillage
|
113
|
|
|
|
Implement mosaic management
|
114
|
|
|
|
Increase crop diversity
|
114
|
|
|
|
Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
|
114
|
|
|
|
Create beetle banks
|
114
|
|
|
|
Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
|
115
|
|
|
|
Revert arable land to permanent grassland
|
115
|
|
|
|
Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings
|
115
|
|
|
|
Create corn bunting plots
|
115
|
|
|
|
Leave unharvested cereal headlands within arable fields
|
115
|
|
|
|
Plant nettle strips
|
115
|
|
|
3.4.3
|
Livestock farming
|
116
|
|
|
|
Delay mowing date on grasslands
|
116
|
|
|
|
Leave uncut rye grass in silage fields
|
117
|
|
|
|
Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
|
117
|
|
|
|
Maintain traditional water meadows
|
117
|
|
|
|
Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality
|
118
|
|
|
|
Plant cereals for whole crop silage
|
118
|
|
|
|
Reduce grazing intensity
|
118
|
|
|
|
Reduce management intensity of permanent grasslands
|
119
|
|
|
|
Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat
|
119
|
|
|
|
Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
|
119
|
|
|
|
Maintain upland heath/moor
|
120
|
|
|
|
Protect nests from livestock to reduce trampling
|
120
|
|
|
|
Provide short grass for waders
|
120
|
|
|
|
Raise mowing height on grasslands
|
120
|
|
|
|
Use traditional breeds of livestock
|
121
|
|
|
|
Maintain lowland heathland
|
121
|
|
|
|
Maintain rush pastures
|
121
|
|
|
|
Maintain wood pasture and parkland
|
121
|
|
|
|
Plant Brassica fodder crops
|
121
|
|
|
|
Use mixed stocking
|
121
|
|
|
3.4.4
|
Perennial, non-timber crops
|
121
|
|
|
|
Maintain traditional orchards
|
121
|
|
|
|
Manage perennial bioenergy crops to benefit wildlife
|
122
|
|
|
3.4.5
|
Aquaculture
|
122
|
|
|
|
Deter birds from landing on shellfish culture gear
|
123
|
|
|
|
Disturb birds at roosts
|
123
|
|
|
|
Provide refuges for fish within ponds
|
123
|
|
|
|
Use electric fencing to exclude fish-eating birds
|
123
|
|
|
|
Use ‘mussel socks’ to prevent birds from attacking shellfish
|
124
|
|
|
|
Use netting to exclude fish-eating birds
|
124
|
|
|
|
Increase water turbidity to reduce fish predation by birds
|
124
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds away from fish farms
|
124
|
|
|
|
Use in-water devices to reduce fish loss from ponds
|
124
|
|
|
|
Disturb birds using foot patrols
|
125
|
|
|
|
Spray water to deter birds from ponds
|
125
|
|
|
|
Scare birds from fish farms
|
125
|
|
3.5
|
Threat: Energy production and mining
|
126
|
|
|
|
Paint wind turbines to increase their visibility
|
126
|
|
3.6
|
Threat: Transportation and service corridors
|
127
|
|
|
3.6.1
|
Verges and airports
|
127
|
|
|
|
Scare or otherwise deter birds from airports
|
127
|
|
|
|
Mow roadside verges
|
127
|
|
|
|
Sow roadside verges
|
128
|
|
|
3.6.2
|
Power lines and electricity pylons
|
128
|
|
|
|
Mark power lines
|
128
|
|
|
|
Bury or isolate power lines
|
129
|
|
|
|
Insulate electricity pylons
|
129
|
|
|
|
Remove earth wires from power lines
|
129
|
|
|
|
Use perch-deterrent lines
|
129
|
|
|
|
Thicken earth wires
|
129
|
|
|
|
Add perches to electricity pylons
|
130
|
|
|
|
Reduce electrocutions by using plastic, not metal, leg rings to mark birds
|
130
|
|
|
|
Use raptor models to deter birds from power lines
|
130
|
|
3.7
|
Threat: Biological resource use
|
131
|
|
|
3.7.1
|
Reducing exploitation and conflict
|
131
|
|
|
|
Scare fish-eating birds from areas to reduce conflict
|
131
|
|
|
|
Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
|
132
|
|
|
|
Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting disturbance
|
132
|
|
|
|
Employ local people as ‘biomonitors’
|
132
|
|
|
|
Increase ‘on-the-ground’ protection to reduce unsustainable levels of exploitation
|
132
|
|
|
|
Introduce voluntary ‘maximum shoot distances’
|
133
|
|
|
|
Mark eggs to reduce their appeal to collectors
|
133
|
|
|
|
Move fish-eating birds to reduce conflict with fishermen
|
133
|
|
|
|
Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods
|
133
|
|
|
|
Provide ‘sacrificial grasslands’ to reduce conflict with farmers
|
134
|
|
|
|
Relocate nestlings to reduce poaching
|
134
|
|
|
|
Use education programmes and local engagement to help reduce persecution or exploitation of species
|
134
|
|
|
|
Use alerts during shoots to reduce mortality of non-target species
|
134
|
|
|
3.7.2
|
Reducing fisheries bycatch
|
135
|
|
|
|
Use streamer lines to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines
|
136
|
|
|
|
Mark trawler warp cables to reduce seabird collisions
|
136
|
|
|
|
Reduce seabird bycatch by releasing offal overboard when setting longlines
|
137
|
|
|
|
Weight baits or lines to reduce longline bycatch of seabirds
|
137
|
|
|
|
Set lines underwater to reduce seabird bycatch
|
137
|
|
|
|
Set longlines at night to reduce seabird bycatch
|
137
|
|
|
|
Dye baits to reduce seabird bycatch
|
138
|
|
|
|
Thaw bait before setting lines to reduce seabird bycatch
|
138
|
|
|
|
Turn deck lights off during night-time setting of longlines to reduce bycatch
|
138
|
|
|
|
Use a sonic scarer when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch
|
138
|
|
|
|
Use acoustic alerts on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
|
138
|
|
|
|
Use bait throwers to reduce seabird bycatch
|
139
|
|
|
|
Use bird exclusion devices such as ‘Brickle curtains’ to reduce seabird mortality when hauling longlines
|
139
|
|
|
|
Use high visibility mesh on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
|
139
|
|
|
|
Use shark liver oil to deter birds when setting lines
|
139
|
|
|
|
Use a line shooter to reduce seabird bycatch
|
140
|
|
|
|
Reduce bycatch through seasonal or area closures
|
140
|
|
|
|
Reduce ‘ghost fishing’ by lost/discarded gear
|
140
|
|
|
|
Reduce gillnet deployment time to reduce seabird bycatch
|
140
|
|
|
|
Set longlines at the side of the boat to reduce seabird bycatch
|
140
|
|
|
|
Tow buoys behind longlining boats to reduce seabird bycatch
|
140
|
|
|
|
Use a water cannon when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch
|
140
|
|
|
|
Use high-visibility longlines to reduce seabird bycatch
|
140
|
|
|
|
Use larger hooks to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines
|
140
|
|
3.8
|
Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance
|
141
|
|
|
|
Provide paths to limit disturbance
|
141
|
|
|
|
Start educational programmes for personal watercraft owners
|
142
|
|
|
|
Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance at nest sites
|
142
|
|
|
|
Use voluntary agreements with local people to reduce disturbance
|
142
|
|
|
|
Habituate birds to human visitors
|
142
|
|
|
|
Use nest covers to reduce the impact of research on predation of ground-nesting seabirds
|
143
|
|
|
|
Reduce visitor group sizes
|
143
|
|
|
|
Set minimum distances for approaching birds (buffer zones)
|
143
|
|
3.9
|
Threat: Natural system modifications
|
144
|
|
|
|
Create scrapes and pools in wetlands and wet grasslands
|
146
|
|
|
|
Provide deadwood/snags in forests (use ring-barking, cutting or silvicides)
|
146
|
|
|
|
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
|
146
|
|
|
|
Clear or open patches in forests
|
147
|
|
|
|
Employ grazing in artificial grasslands/pastures
|
147
|
|
|
|
Employ grazing in natural grasslands
|
147
|
|
|
|
Employ grazing in non-grassland habitats
|
148
|
|
|
|
Manage water level in wetlands
|
148
|
|
|
|
Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (forests)
|
148
|
|
|
|
Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (mowing or cutting natural grasslands)
|
149
|
|
|
|
Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (mowing or cutting semi-natural grasslands/pastures)
|
149
|
|
|
|
Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (shrublands)
|
150
|
|
|
|
Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
|
150
|
|
|
|
Thin trees within forests
|
150
|
|
|
|
Use prescribed burning (grasslands)
|
151
|
|
|
|
Use prescribed burning (pine forests)
|
151
|
|
|
|
Use prescribed burning (savannahs)
|
152
|
|
|
|
Use prescribed burning (shrublands)
|
152
|
|
|
|
Use selective harvesting/logging instead of clearcutting
|
152
|
|
|
|
Clearcut and re-seed forests
|
153
|
|
|
|
Coppice trees
|
153
|
|
|
|
Fertilise grasslands
|
153
|
|
|
|
Manage woodland edges for birds
|
154
|
|
|
|
Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (reedbeds)
|
154
|
|
|
|
Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (savannahs)
|
154
|
|
|
|
Plant trees to act as windbreaks
|
154
|
|
|
|
Plough habitats
|
155
|
|
|
|
Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests)
|
155
|
|
|
|
Remove coarse woody debris from forests
|
155
|
|
|
|
Replace non-native species of tree/shrub
|
155
|
|
|
|
Re-seed grasslands
|
156
|
|
|
|
Use environmentally sensitive flood management
|
156
|
|
|
|
Use fire suppression/control
|
156
|
|
|
|
Use greentree reservoir management
|
156
|
|
|
|
Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest)
|
157
|
|
|
|
Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
|
157
|
|
|
|
Use variable retention management during forestry operations
|
157
|
|
|
|
Apply herbicide to mid- and understorey vegetation
|
157
|
|
|
|
Treat wetlands with herbicides
|
158
|
|
|
|
Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats)
|
158
|
|
|
|
Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests)
|
158
|
|
|
|
Protect nest trees before burning
|
159
|
|
3.10
|
Habitat restoration and creation
|
160
|
|
|
|
Restore or create forests
|
160
|
|
|
|
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands)
|
161
|
|
|
|
Restore or create grassland
|
161
|
|
|
|
Restore or create traditional water meadows
|
162
|
|
|
|
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands)
|
162
|
|
|
|
Restore or create shrubland
|
162
|
|
|
|
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests)
|
163
|
|
|
|
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons)
|
163
|
|
|
|
Restore or create savannahs
|
163
|
|
|
|
Revegetate gravel pits
|
163
|
|
3.11
|
Threat: Invasive alien and other problematic species
|
164
|
|
|
3.11.1
|
Reduce predation by other species
|
164
|
|
|
|
Control mammalian predators on islands
|
164
|
|
|
|
Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities
|
165
|
|
|
|
Control avian predators on islands
|
165
|
|
|
|
Control invasive ants on islands
|
165
|
|
|
|
Reduce predation by translocating predators
|
166
|
|
|
|
Control predators not on islands
|
166
|
|
|
3.11.2
|
Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control
|
167
|
|
|
|
Distribute poison bait using dispensers
|
167
|
|
|
|
Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control
|
167
|
|
|
|
Use repellents on baits
|
167
|
|
|
|
Do birds take bait designed for pest control?
|
168
|
|
|
3.11.3
|
Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas
|
168
|
|
|
|
Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing
|
169
|
|
|
|
Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks
|
169
|
|
|
|
Protect bird nests using electric fencing
|
169
|
|
|
|
Use artificial nests that discourage predation
|
170
|
|
|
|
Guard nests to prevent predation
|
170
|
|
|
|
Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation
|
170
|
|
|
|
Protect nests from ants
|
170
|
|
|
|
Use multiple barriers to protect nests
|
171
|
|
|
|
Use naphthalene to deter mammalian predators
|
171
|
|
|
|
Use snakeskin to deter mammalian nest predators
|
171
|
|
|
|
Play spoken-word radio programs to deter predators
|
171
|
|
|
|
Use ‘cat curfews’ to reduce predation
|
171
|
|
|
|
Use lion dung to deter domestic cats
|
171
|
|
|
|
Use mirrors to deter nest predators
|
171
|
|
|
|
Use ultrasonic devices to deter cats
|
171
|
|
|
|
Can nest protection increase nest abandonment?
|
172
|
|
|
|
Can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks?
|
172
|
|
|
3.11.4
|
Reduce mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behaviour
|
172
|
|
|
|
Reduce predation by translocating nest boxes
|
173
|
|
|
|
Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation
|
173
|
|
|
|
Use supplementary feeding to reduce predation
|
173
|
|
|
|
Use aversive conditioning to reduce nest predation
|
173
|
|
|
3.11.5
|
Reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites
|
174
|
|
|
|
Reduce inter-specific competition for food by removing or controlling competitor species
|
174
|
|
|
|
Protect nest sites from competitors
|
175
|
|
|
|
Reduce competition between species by providing nest boxes
|
175
|
|
|
|
Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by modifying habitats to exclude competitor species
|
175
|
|
|
|
Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (ground nesting seabirds)
|
176
|
|
|
|
Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (songbirds)
|
176
|
|
|
|
Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (woodpeckers)
|
176
|
|
|
3.11.6
|
Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
|
177
|
|
|
|
Control or remove habitat-altering mammals
|
177
|
|
|
|
Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (terrestrial species)
|
177
|
|
|
|
Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (aquatic species)
|
178
|
|
|
|
Remove problematic vegetation
|
178
|
|
|
|
Use buffer zones to reduce the impact of invasive plant control
|
178
|
|
|
3.11.7
|
Reduce parasitism and disease
|
179
|
|
|
|
Remove/control adult brood parasites
|
179
|
|
|
|
Remove/treat endoparasites and diseases
|
180
|
|
|
|
Alter artificial nest sites to discourage brood parasitism
|
180
|
|
|
|
Exclude or control ‘reservoir species’ to reduce parasite burdens
|
180
|
|
|
|
Remove brood parasite eggs from target species’ nests
|
180
|
|
|
|
Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (provide beneficial nesting material)
|
181
|
|
|
|
Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from feathers)
|
181
|
|
|
|
Use false brood parasite eggs to discourage brood parasitism
|
181
|
|
|
|
Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from nests)
|
181
|
|
|
3.11.8
|
Reduce detrimental impacts of other problematic species
|
182
|
|
|
|
Use copper strips to exclude snails from nests
|
182
|
|
3.12
|
Threat: Pollution
|
183
|
|
|
3.12.1
|
Industrial pollution
|
183
|
|
|
|
Use visual and acoustic ‘scarers’ to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining or sewage
|
183
|
|
|
|
Relocate birds following oil spills
|
184
|
|
|
|
Use repellents to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining
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184
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Clean birds after oil spills
|
184
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3.12.2
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Agricultural pollution
|
185
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Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
|
185
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Provide food for vultures to reduce mortality from diclofenac
|
186
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Reduce pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use generally
|
186
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Reduce chemical inputs in permanent grassland management
|
186
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Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals
|
186
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Make selective use of spring herbicides
|
187
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Provide buffer strips along rivers and streams
|
187
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Provide unfertilised cereal headlands in arable fields
|
187
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Use buffer strips around in-field ponds
|
187
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Use organic rather than mineral fertilisers
|
187
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3.12.3
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Air-borne pollutants
|
187
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Use lime to reduce acidification in lakes
|
187
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3.12.4
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Excess energy
|
188
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Shield lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
|
188
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Turning off lights
|
188
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Use flashing lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
|
188
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Use lights low in spectral red to reduce mortality from artificial lights
|
189
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Reduce the intensity of lighthouse beams
|
189
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Using volunteers to collect and rehabilitate downed birds
|
189
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3.13
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Threat: Climate change, extreme weather and geological events
|
190
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|
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Replace nesting habitats when they are washed away by storms
|
190
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Water nests during droughts
|
191
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3.14
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General responses to small/declining populations
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192
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3.14.1
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Inducing breeding, rehabilitation and egg removal
|
192
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Rehabilitate injured birds
|
192
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Remove eggs from wild nests to increase reproductive output
|
193
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Use artificial visual and auditory stimuli to induce breeding in wild populations
|
193
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3.14.2
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Provide artificial nesting sites
|
193
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Provide artificial nests (falcons)
|
194
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Provide artificial nests (owls)
|
195
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Provide artificial nests (songbirds)
|
195
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|
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Provide artificial nests (wildfowl)
|
196
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|
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|
Clean artificial nests to increase occupancy or reproductive success
|
196
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|
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Provide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds)
|
197
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Provide artificial nests (divers/loons)
|
197
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Provide artificial nests (ground- and tree-nesting seabirds)
|
197
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|
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Provide artificial nests (oilbirds)
|
198
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|
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Provide artificial nests (raptors)
|
198
|
|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (wildfowl – artificial/floating islands)
|
198
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests
|
198
|
|
|
|
Guard nests
|
199
|
|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (gamebirds)
|
199
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|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (grebes)
|
199
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|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos)
|
199
|
|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (parrots)
|
199
|
|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (pigeons)
|
200
|
|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (rails)
|
200
|
|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (rollers)
|
200
|
|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (swifts)
|
200
|
|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (trogons)
|
201
|
|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (waders)
|
201
|
|
|
|
Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers)
|
201
|
|
|
|
Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather
|
201
|
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|
Provide nesting material for wild birds
|
202
|
|
|
|
Remove vegetation to create nesting areas
|
202
|
|
|
|
Repair/support nests to support breeding
|
202
|
|
|
|
Use differently-coloured artificial nests
|
202
|
|
|
3.14.3
|
Foster chicks in the wild
|
203
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (raptors)
|
203
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|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (songbirds)
|
204
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (bustards)
|
204
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (cranes)
|
204
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|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (gannets and boobies)
|
204
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (owls)
|
205
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (parrots)
|
205
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (vultures)
|
205
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (waders)
|
205
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (woodpeckers)
|
206
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (cranes)
|
206
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (ibises)
|
206
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (petrels and shearwaters)
|
206
|
|
|
|
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (waders)
|
206
|
|
|
3.14.4
|
Provide supplementary food
|
207
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (songbirds)
|
209
|
|
|
|
Place feeders close to windows to reduce collisions
|
209
|
|
|
|
Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success
|
210
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (cranes)
|
210
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gulls, terns and skuas)
|
210
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (owls)
|
210
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (raptors)
|
211
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (songbirds)
|
211
|
|
|
|
Provide perches to improve foraging success
|
212
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food through the establishment of food populations
|
212
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to allow the rescue of a second chick
|
213
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gamebirds)
|
213
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gulls, terns and skuas)
|
213
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (hummingbirds)
|
213
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (nectar-feeding songbirds)
|
214
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (pigeons)
|
214
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (raptors)
|
214
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (vultures)
|
215
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (waders)
|
215
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (wildfowl)
|
215
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (woodpeckers)
|
215
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (auks)
|
216
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gamebirds)
|
216
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gannets and boobies)
|
216
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (ibises)
|
217
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (kingfishers)
|
217
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (parrots)
|
217
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (petrels)
|
217
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (pigeons)
|
218
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (rails and coots)
|
218
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (vultures)
|
218
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (waders)
|
219
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (wildfowl)
|
219
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary water to increase survival or reproductive success
|
219
|
|
|
3.14.5
|
Translocations
|
219
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (birds in general)
|
221
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (raptors)
|
221
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (parrots)
|
221
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (pelicans)
|
221
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (petrels and shearwaters)
|
222
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (rails)
|
222
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (songbirds)
|
222
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (wildfowl)
|
222
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (woodpeckers)
|
223
|
|
|
|
Use decoys to attract birds to new sites
|
223
|
|
|
|
Use techniques to increase the survival of species after capture
|
223
|
|
|
|
Use vocalisations to attract birds to new sites
|
224
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (gamebirds)
|
224
|
|
|
|
Alter habitats to encourage birds to leave
|
224
|
|
|
|
Ensure translocated birds are familiar with each other before release
|
224
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (auks)
|
225
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (herons, storks and ibises)
|
225
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (megapodes)
|
225
|
|
|
|
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (owls)
|
225
|
|
|
|
Translocate nests to avoid disturbance
|
226
|
|
|
|
Ensure genetic variation to increase translocation success
|
226
|
|
3.15
|
Captive breeding, rearing and releases (ex situ conservation)
|
227
|
|
|
3.15.1
|
Captive breeding
|
227
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors)
|
229
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds)
|
229
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds)
|
229
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders)
|
230
|
|
|
|
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors)
|
230
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards)
|
230
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes)
|
231
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds)
|
231
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots)
|
231
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins)
|
231
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails)
|
232
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises)
|
232
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (vultures)
|
232
|
|
|
|
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (wildfowl)
|
232
|
|
|
|
Freeze semen for artificial insemination
|
233
|
|
|
|
Use artificial insemination in captive breeding
|
233
|
|
|
|
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (bustards)
|
233
|
|
|
|
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (cranes)
|
234
|
|
|
|
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (pigeons)
|
234
|
|
|
|
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (rails)
|
234
|
|
|
|
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (seabirds)
|
234
|
|
|
|
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (songbirds)
|
234
|
|
|
|
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (storks and ibises)
|
235
|
|
|
|
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (tinamous)
|
235
|
|
|
|
Use puppets to increase the success of hand-rearing
|
235
|
|
|
|
Wash contaminated semen and use it for artificial insemination
|
236
|
|
|
|
Can captive breeding have deleterious effects on individual fitness?
|
236
|
|
|
3.15.2
|
Release captive-bred individuals
|
236
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food during and after release
|
237
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (cranes)
|
238
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (raptors)
|
238
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (songbirds)
|
238
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (vultures)
|
239
|
|
|
|
Clip birds’ wings on release
|
239
|
|
|
|
Release birds as adults or sub-adults not juveniles
|
239
|
|
|
|
Release birds in groups
|
240
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (bustards)
|
240
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (gamebirds)
|
240
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (owls)
|
240
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (parrots)
|
241
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (pigeons)
|
241
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (rails)
|
241
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (storks and ibises)
|
242
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (waders)
|
242
|
|
|
|
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (wildfowl)
|
242
|
|
|
|
Release chicks and adults in ‘coveys’
|
242
|
|
|
|
Use ‘anti-predator training’ to improve survival after release
|
243
|
|
|
|
Use appropriate populations to source released populations
|
243
|
|
|
|
Use ‘flying training’ before release
|
243
|
|
|
|
Use holding pens at release sites
|
243
|
|
|
|
Use microlites to help birds migrate
|
244
|
|
|
|
|
|
4.
|
FARMLAND CONSERVATION
|
245
|
|
4.1
|
All farming systems
|
247
|
|
|
|
Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
|
248
|
|
|
|
Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
|
249
|
|
|
|
Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
|
249
|
|
|
|
Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
|
250
|
|
|
|
Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland
|
250
|
|
|
|
Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife (includes no spray, gap-filling and laying)
|
250
|
|
|
|
Pay farmers to cover the cost of conservation measures (as in agri-environment schemes)
|
251
|
|
|
|
Provide supplementary food for birds or mammals
|
251
|
|
|
|
Connect areas of natural or semi-natural habitat
|
251
|
|
|
|
Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
|
252
|
|
|
|
Make direct payments per clutch for farmland birds
|
252
|
|
|
|
Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
|
252
|
|
|
|
Manage the agricultural landscape to enhance floral resources
|
252
|
|
|
|
Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
|
253
|
|
|
|
Plant new hedges
|
253
|
|
|
|
Provide nest boxes for bees (solitary bees or bumblebees)
|
253
|
|
|
|
Provide nest boxes for birds
|
253
|
|
|
|
Provide other resources for birds (water, sand for bathing)
|
254
|
|
|
|
Provide refuges during harvest or mowing
|
254
|
|
|
|
Apply ‘cross compliance’ environmental standards linked to all subsidy payments
|
254
|
|
|
|
Implement food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming (organic, LEAF marque)
|
254
|
|
|
|
Introduce nest boxes stocked with solitary bees
|
254
|
|
|
|
Maintain in-field elements such as field islands and rockpiles
|
254
|
|
|
|
Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit wildlife
|
254
|
|
|
|
Manage woodland edges to benefit wildlife
|
254
|
|
|
|
Plant in-field trees (not farm woodland)
|
255
|
|
|
|
Protect in-field trees (includes management such as pollarding and surgery)
|
255
|
|
|
|
Provide badger gates
|
255
|
|
|
|
Provide foraging perches (e.g. for shrikes)
|
255
|
|
|
|
Provide otter holts
|
255
|
|
|
|
Provide red squirrel feeders
|
255
|
|
|
|
Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)
|
255
|
|
|
|
Restore or maintain dry stone walls
|
255
|
|
|
|
Support or maintain low-intensity agricultural systems
|
255
|
|
4.2
|
Arable farming
|
256
|
|
|
|
Create skylark plots
|
257
|
|
|
|
Leave cultivated, uncropped margins or plots (includes ‘lapwing plots’)
|
257
|
|
|
|
Create beetle banks
|
257
|
|
|
|
Leave overwinter stubbles
|
258
|
|
|
|
Reduce tillage
|
258
|
|
|
|
Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
|
258
|
|
|
|
Convert or revert arable land to permanent grassland
|
259
|
|
|
|
Create rotational grass or clover leys
|
259
|
|
|
|
Implement ‘mosaic management’, a Dutch agri-environment option
|
259
|
|
|
|
Increase crop diversity
|
259
|
|
|
|
Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
|
260
|
|
|
|
Plant crops in spring rather than autumn
|
260
|
|
|
|
Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
|
260
|
|
|
|
Plant nettle strips
|
260
|
|
|
|
Sow rare or declining arable weeds
|
260
|
|
|
|
Take field corners out of management
|
261
|
|
|
|
Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings
|
261
|
|
|
|
Create corn bunting plots
|
261
|
|
|
|
Leave unharvested cereal headlands within arable fields
|
261
|
|
|
|
Use new crop types to benefit wildlife (such as perennial cereal crops)
|
261
|
|
4.3
|
Perennial (non-timber) crops
|
262
|
|
|
|
Maintain traditional orchards
|
262
|
|
|
|
Manage short-rotation coppice to benefit wildlife (includes 8m rides)
|
262
|
|
|
|
Restore or create traditional orchards
|
262
|
|
4.4
|
Livestock farming
|
263
|
|
|
|
Restore or create species-rich, semi-natural grassland
|
264
|
|
|
|
Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
|
264
|
|
|
|
Delay mowing or first grazing date on grasslands
|
265
|
|
|
|
Leave uncut strips of rye grass on silage fields
|
265
|
|
|
|
Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
|
265
|
|
|
|
Maintain traditional water meadows (includes management for breeding and/or wintering waders/waterfowl)
|
266
|
|
|
|
Maintain upland heath/moorland
|
266
|
|
|
|
Reduce management intensity on permanent grasslands (several interventions at once)
|
266
|
|
|
|
Restore or create traditional water meadows
|
267
|
|
|
|
Add yellow rattle seed Rhinanthus minor to hay meadows
|
267
|
|
|
|
Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
|
267
|
|
|
|
Employ areas of semi-natural habitat for rough grazing (includes salt marsh, lowland heath, bog, fen)
|
267
|
|
|
|
Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)
|
268
|
|
|
|
Maintain wood pasture and parkland
|
268
|
|
|
|
Plant cereals for whole crop silage
|
268
|
|
|
|
Provide short grass for birds
|
268
|
|
|
|
Raise mowing height on grasslands
|
269
|
|
|
|
Restore or create upland heath/moorland
|
269
|
|
|
|
Restore or create wood pasture
|
269
|
|
|
|
Use mixed stocking
|
269
|
|
|
|
Use traditional breeds of livestock
|
270
|
|
|
|
Reduce grazing intensity on grassland (including seasonal removal of livestock)
|
270
|
|
|
|
Maintain rush pastures
|
270
|
|
|
|
Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality
|
270
|
|
|
|
Plant Brassica fodder crops (grazed in situ)
|
270
|
|
4.5
|
Threat: Residential and commercial development
|
271
|
|
|
|
Provide owl nest boxes (tawny owl, barn owl)
|
271
|
|
|
|
Maintain traditional farm buildings
|
271
|
|
|
|
Provide bat boxes, bat grilles, improvements to roosts
|
271
|
|
4.6
|
Threat: Agri-chemicals
|
272
|
|
|
|
Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
|
272
|
|
|
|
Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally
|
273
|
|
|
|
Use organic rather than mineral fertilizers
|
273
|
|
|
|
Reduce chemical inputs in grassland management
|
273
|
|
|
|
Make selective use of spring herbicides
|
274
|
|
|
|
Provide buffer strips alongside water courses (rivers and streams)
|
274
|
|
|
|
Restrict certain pesticides
|
274
|
|
|
|
Buffer in-field ponds
|
274
|
|
4.7
|
Threat: Transport and service corridors
|
275
|
|
|
|
Manage land under power lines to benefit wildlife
|
275
|
|
4.8
|
Threat: Hunting and trapping (for pest control, food or sport)
|
276
|
|
|
|
Enforce legislation to protect birds against persecution
|
276
|
|
|
|
Provide ‘sacrificial’ grasslands to reduce the impact of wild geese on crops
|
276
|
|
|
|
Use scaring devices (e.g. gas guns) and other deterrents to reduce persecution of native species
|
277
|
|
|
|
Avoid use of lead shot
|
277
|
|
|
|
Use alerts to reduce grey partridge by-catch during shoots
|
277
|
|
4.9
|
Threat: Natural system modification
|
278
|
|
|
|
Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
|
278
|
|
|
|
Create scrapes and pools
|
279
|
|
|
|
Manage heather by swiping to simulate burning
|
279
|
|
|
|
Manage heather, gorse or grass by burning
|
279
|
|
|
|
Remove flood defence banks to allow inundation
|
279
|
|
|
|
Re-wet moorland
|
280
|
|
4.10
|
Threat: Invasive and other problematic species
|
281
|
|
|
|
Control predatory mammals and birds (foxes, crows, stoats and weasels)
|
281
|
|
|
|
Control bracken
|
282
|
|
|
|
Control invasive non-native plants on farmland (such as Himalayan balsam, Japanese knotweed)
|
282
|
|
|
|
Control mink
|
282
|
|
|
|
Control scrub
|
282
|
|
|
|
Control weeds without damaging other plants in conservation areas
|
283
|
|
|
|
Protect individual nests of ground-nesting birds
|
283
|
|
|
|
Provide medicated grit for grouse
|
283
|
|
|
|
Control grey squirrels
|
283
|
|
|
|
Erect predator-proof fencing around important breeding sites for waders
|
283
|
|
|
|
Manage wild deer numbers
|
283
|
|
|
|
Remove coarse fish
|
283
|
|
4.11
|
Threat: Education and awareness
|
284
|
|
|
|
Provide training for land managers, farmers and farm advisers
|
284
|
|
|
|
Provide specialist advice, assistance preparing conservation plans
|
284
|
|
|
|
|
|
5.
|
SOME ASPECTS OF CONTROL OF FRESHWATER INVASIVE SPECIES
|
285
|
|
5.1
|
Threat: Invasive amphibians
|
287
|
|
|
5.1.1
|
American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeiana
|
287
|
|
|
|
Biological control using native predators
|
287
|
|
|
|
Direct removal of adults
|
288
|
|
|
|
Direct removal of juveniles
|
288
|
|
|
|
Dewatering
|
288
|
|
|
|
Application of a biocide
|
289
|
|
|
|
Biological control of facilitator species
|
289
|
|
|
|
Habitat manipulation
|
289
|
|
|
|
Collection of egg clutches
|
289
|
|
|
|
Fencing
|
289
|
|
|
|
Pond destruction
|
289
|
|
|
|
Public education
|
289
|
|
5.2
|
Threat: Invasive crustaceans
|
290
|
|
|
5.2.1
|
Procambarus spp. crayfish
|
290
|
|
|
|
Add chemicals to the water
|
290
|
|
|
|
Sterilization of males
|
291
|
|
|
|
Trapping and removal
|
291
|
|
|
|
Trapping combined with encouragement of predators
|
291
|
|
|
|
Create barriers
|
291
|
|
|
|
Food source removal
|
291
|
|
|
|
Encouraging predators
|
292
|
|
|
|
Draining the waterway
|
292
|
|
|
|
Relocate vulnerable crayfish
|
292
|
|
|
|
Remove the crayfish by electrofishing
|
292
|
|
|
|
|
|
6.
|
SOME ASPECTS OF ENHANCING NATURAL PEST CONTROL
|
293
|
|
6.1
|
Reducing agricultural pollution
|
295
|
|
|
|
Alter the timing of insecticide use
|
295
|
|
|
|
Delay herbicide use
|
296
|
|
|
|
Incorporate parasitism rates when setting thresholds for insecticide use
|
297
|
|
|
|
Use pesticides only when pests or crop damage reach threshold levels
|
297
|
|
|
|
Convert to organic farming
|
298
|
|
6.2
|
All farming systems
|
300
|
|
|
|
Grow non-crop plants that produce chemicals that attract natural enemies
|
300
|
|
|
|
Use chemicals to attract natural enemies
|
301
|
|
|
|
Leave part of the crop or pasture unharvested or uncut
|
302
|
|
|
|
Plant new hedges
|
303
|
|
|
|
Use alley cropping
|
303
|
|
|
|
Use mass-emergence devices to increase natural enemy populations
|
304
|
|
6.3
|
Arable farming
|
305
|
|
|
|
Combine trap and repellent crops in a push-pull system
|
305
|
|
|
|
Use crop rotation in potato farming systems
|
306
|
|
|
|
Create beetle banks
|
307
|
|
|
|
Incorporate plant remains into the soil that produce weed-controlling chemicals
|
308
|
|
6.4
|
Perennial farming
|
310
|
|
|
|
Exclude ants that protect pests
|
310
|
|
|
|
Allow natural regeneration of ground cover beneath perennial crops
|
311
|
|
|
|
Isolate colonies of beneficial ants
|
312
|
|
6.5
|
Livestock farming and pasture
|
313
|
|
|
|
Grow plants that compete with damaging weeds
|
313
|
|
|
|
Delay mowing or first grazing date on pasture or grassland
|
314
|
|
|
|
Use grazing instead of cutting for pasture or grassland management
|
315
|
|
|
|
Use mixed pasture
|
315
|
|
|
|
|
|
7.
|
ENHANCING SOIL FERTILITY
|
317
|
|
7.1
|
Reducing agricultural pollution
|
319
|
|
|
|
Change the timing of manure application
|
319
|
|
|
|
Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally
|
320
|
|
7.2
|
All farming systems
|
321
|
|
|
|
Control traffic and traffic timing
|
321
|
|
|
|
Change tillage practices
|
322
|
|
|
|
Convert to organic farming
|
324
|
|
|
|
Plant new hedges
|
324
|
|
|
|
Change the timing of ploughing
|
325
|
|
7.3
|
Arable farming
|
326
|
|
|
|
Amend the soil using a mix of organic and inorganic amendments
|
327
|
|
|
|
Grow cover crops when the field is empty
|
327
|
|
|
|
Use crop rotation
|
328
|
|
|
|
Amend the soil with formulated chemical compounds
|
329
|
|
|
|
Grow cover crops beneath the main crop (living mulches) or between crop rows
|
330
|
|
|
|
Add mulch to crops
|
330
|
|
|
|
Amend the soil with fresh plant material or crop remains
|
331
|
|
|
|
Amend the soil with manures and agricultural composts
|
332
|
|
|
|
Amend the soil with municipal wastes or their composts
|
333
|
|
|
|
Incorporate leys into crop rotation
|
333
|
|
|
|
Retain crop residues
|
334
|
|
|
|
Amend the soil with bacteria or fungi
|
334
|
|
|
|
Amend the soil with composts not otherwise specified
|
335
|
|
|
|
Amend the soil with crops grown as green manures
|
335
|
|
|
|
Amend the soil with non-chemical minerals and mineral wastes
|
335
|
|
|
|
Amend the soil with organic processing wastes or their composts
|
335
|
|
|
|
Encourage foraging waterfowl
|
336
|
|
|
|
Use alley cropping
|
336
|
|
7.4
|
Livestock and pasture farming
|
337
|
|
|
|
Reduce grazing intensity
|
337
|
|
|
|
Restore or create low input grasslands
|
338
|