The Challenges of Evolutionary Biodemography and the Example of Menopause

Menopause in humans and post reproductive life in humans and other species challenge our understanding in demographic and evolutionary terms. This chapter outlines the questions that are key to an evolutionary understanding of menopause, and the failure of some well-known theories of aging to deal with these questions. The chapter then introduces and explains the concept of “borrowed fitness” in which post-reproductive ages can indirectly acquire fitness from reproductive ages. Several mechanisms for this kind of “borrowing” are then discussed, including the grandmother effect, the contributions of older males, and most generally, an approach based on the transfers from and to different ages, both reproductive and post-reproductive. We also discuss other theoretical advances in the understanding of the evolution of old age mortality. We suggest that further development of the transfer approach is the most likely to lead to advances in our understanding of the evolution of menopause.