Contents
Who is What Works in Conservation for? 1
The Conservation Evidence project 1
Which conservation interventions are included? 2
How we review the literature 3
What does What Works in Conservation include? 4
Expert assessment of the evidence 4
Categorization of interventions 6
How to use What Works in Conservation 6
1.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development 11
Legal protection of species 11
Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites 12
Restrict herbicide, fungicide and pesticide use on and around ponds on golf courses 12
1.2.1 Engage farmers and other volunteers 13
Engage landowners and other volunteers to manage land for amphibians 13
Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures 14
1.2.2 Terrestrial habitat management 14
Manage silviculture practices in plantations 14
1.2.3 Aquatic habitat management 15
Exclude domestic animals or wild hogs from ponds by fencing 16
1.3 Threat: Energy production and mining 17
Artificially mist habitat to keep it damp 17
1.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors 18
Close roads during seasonal amphibian migration 18
Modify gully pots and kerbs 19
Install barrier fencing along roads 19
Install culverts or tunnels as road crossings 19
Use signage to warn motorists 20
Use humans to assist migrating amphibians across roads 20
1.5 Threat: Biological resource use 21
1.5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals 21
Reduce impact of amphibian trade 21
Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations 22
Commercially breed amphibians for the pet trade 22
1.5.2 Logging and wood harvesting 22
Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest 23
Use shelterwood harvesting instead of clearcutting 23
Leave coarse woody debris in forests 23
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting 24
Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests 24
Use leave-tree harvesting instead of clearcutting 24
Harvest groups of trees instead of clearcutting 25
1.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance 26
Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance 26
1.7 Threat: Natural system modifications 27
Mechanically remove mid-storey or ground vegetation 28
Use herbicides to control mid-storey or ground vegetation 28
Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (forests) 28
Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (grassland) 29
1.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species 30
1.8.1 Reduce predation by other species 30
Remove or control fish by drying out ponds 30
Remove or control fish population by catching 31
Remove or control invasive bullfrogs 31
Remove or control invasive viperine snake 31
Remove or control fish using Rotenone 32
Encourage aquatic plant growth as refuge against fish predation 32
Remove or control non-native crayfish 32
1.8.2 Reduce competition with other species 32
Reduce competition from native amphibians 33
Remove or control invasive Cuban tree frogs 33
Remove or control invasive cane toads 33
1.8.3 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species 33
Prevent heavy usage/exclude wildfowl from aquatic habitat 34
1.8.4 Reduce parasitism and disease – chytridiomycosis 34
Use temperature treatment to reduce infection 35
Use antifungal treatment to reduce infection 35
Immunize amphibians against infection 36
Remove the chytrid fungus from ponds 36
Sterilize equipment when moving between amphibian sites 36
Treating amphibians in the wild or pre-release 36
Use gloves to handle amphibians 36
Use antibacterial treatment to reduce infection 37
Use antifungal skin bacteria or peptides to reduce infection 37
Use zooplankton to remove zoospores 37
1.8.5 Reduce parasitism and disease – ranaviruses 38
Sterilize equipment to prevent ranaviruses 38
1.9.1 Agricultural pollution 39
Create walls or barriers to exclude pollutants 39
Plant riparian buffer strips 39
Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use 40
Prevent pollution from agricultural lands or sewage treatment facilities entering watercourses 40
Add limestone to water bodies to reduce acidification 40
Augment ponds with ground water to reduce acidification 41
1.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather 42
Deepen ponds to prevent desiccation 43
Use irrigation systems for amphibian sites 43
Artificially shade ponds to prevent desiccation 43
Protect habitat along elevational gradients 43
Retain buffer zones around core habitat 44
Protect habitats for amphibians 45
Retain connectivity between habitat patches 45
1.12 Habitat restoration and creation 46
Create artificial hibernacula or aestivation sites 47
Restore habitat connectivity 48
Create habitat connectivity 48
Create ponds (amphibians in general) 49
Create ponds (natterjack toads) 50
Create ponds (salamanders including newts) 50
Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds 51
Create ponds (great crested newts) 51
Remove specific aquatic plants 52
Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading 53
Add nutrients to new ponds as larvae food source 53
Add specific plants to aquatic habitats 53
Create refuge areas in aquatic habitats 53
1.13.1 Translocate amphibians 54
Translocate amphibians (amphibians in general) 54
Translocate amphibians (great crested newts) 55
Translocate amphibians (natterjack toads) 55
Translocate amphibians (salamanders including newts) 55
Translocate amphibians (toads) 56
Translocate amphibians (wood frogs) 56
Translocate amphibians (frogs) 56
1.13.2 Captive breeding, rearing and releases 57
Release captive-bred individuals (amphibians in general) 58
Release captive-bred individuals (frogs) 58
Breed amphibians in captivity (frogs) 58
Breed amphibians in captivity (harlequin toads) 59
Breed amphibians in captivity (Mallorcan midwife toad) 59
Breed amphibians in captivity (salamanders including newts) 59
Breed amphibians in captivity (toads) 59
Head-start amphibians for release 60
Release captive-bred individuals (Mallorcan midwife toad) 60
Release captive-bred individuals (toads) 60
Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding 61
Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release 61
Release captive-bred individuals (salamanders including newts) 61
Freeze sperm or eggs for future use 62
Release captive-bred individuals (green and golden bell frogs) 62
1.14 Education and awareness raising 63
Engage volunteers to collect amphibian data (citizen science) 63
Provide education programmes about amphibians 63
Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information 64
2.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development 67
Change timing of building work 68
Create alternative bat roosts within developments 68
Create or restore bat foraging habitat in urban areas 69
Exclude bats from roosts during building work 69
Legally protect bats during development 69
Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites 70
Relocate access points to bat roosts within developments 70
Retain existing bat roosts and access points within developments 71
Encourage homeowners to increase semi-natural habitat within gardens 71
Encourage homeowners to plant gardens with night-scented flowers 71
Protect greenfield sites or undeveloped land in urban areas 71
Retain or plant native trees and shrubs amongst crops (agroforestry) 73
Use organic farming instead of conventional farming 74
Create tree plantations on agricultural land to provide roosting and foraging habitat for bats 74
Engage farmers and landowners to manage land for bats 75
Introduce agri-environment schemes 75
Manage hedges to benefit bats 76
Reduce field size (or maintain small fields) 76
Retain riparian buffers on agricultural land 76
Retain unmown field margins 77
Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape 77
Manage ditches to benefit bats 77
Plant field margins with a diverse mix of plant species 77
Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland 77
Retain existing in-field trees 77
Retain remnant forest or woodland on agricultural land 77
Remove livestock modifications from water troughs 78
Avoid the use of antiparasitic drugs for livestock 78
Manage grazing regimes to increase invertebrate prey 78
2.2.3 Perennial, non-timber crops 79
Introduce certification for bat-friendly crop harvesting regimes 79
Prevent culling of bats around fruit orchards 79
Replace netting with non-lethal measures to prevent bats from accessing fruit in orchards 79
Restore and manage abandoned orchards for bats 79
2.3 Threat: Energy production 80
Automatically reduce turbine blade rotation when bat activity is high 81
Deter bats from turbines using ultrasound 82
Prevent turbine blades from turning at low wind speeds to reduce bat fatalities 82
Apply textured coating to turbines 82
Close off potential access points on turbines to prevent roosting bats 83
Deter bats from turbines using low-level ultraviolet light 83
Deter bats from turbines using radar 83
Modify turbine placement to reduce bat fatalities 83
Paint turbines to reduce insect attraction 83
Remove turbine lighting to reduce bat and insect attraction 83
Retain a buffer between turbines and habitat features used by bats 83
Install and maintain gates at mine entrances to restrict public access 83
Maintain microclimate in closed/abandoned mines 84
Restore bat foraging habitat at ex-quarry sites 85
Exclude bats from roosts prior to mine reclamation 85
Provide artificial subterranean bat roosts to replace roosts in reclaimed mines 85
Relocate bats from reclaimed mines to alternative subterranean roost sites 85
Reopen entrances to closed mines and make suitable for roosting bats 85
Retain access points for bats following mine closures 85
2.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors 86
Install overpasses as road crossing structures for bats 87
Install underpasses or culverts as road crossing structures for bats 87
Divert bats to safe crossing points with plantings or fencing 88
Install green bridges as road crossing structures for bats 88
Maintain bat roosts in road bridges and culverts 88
Install bat gantries or bat bridges as road crossing structures for bats 89
Avoid planting fruit trees alongside roads in areas with fruit bats 89
Create spaces for roosting bats in road bridges and culverts 89
Deter bats from roads using lighting 89
Deter bats from roads using ultrasound 89
Install hop-overs as road crossing structures for bats 89
Minimize road lighting to reduce insect attraction 89
Replace or improve habitat for bats around roads 89
2.5 Threat: Biological resource use 90
Inform local communities about the negative impacts of bat hunting to reduce killing of bats 91
Encourage online vendors to remove bat specimens for sale 91
Enforce regulations to prevent trafficking and trade of bats 91
Introduce alternative treatments to reduce the use of bats in traditional medicine 91
Introduce and enforce legislation to control hunting of bats 92
Introduce other food sources to replace bat meat 92
Introduce other income sources to replace bat trade 92
Restrict the collection of bat specimens for research 92
Strengthen cultural traditions that discourage bat harvesting 92
Introduce and enforce legislation to regulate harvesting of bat guano 92
2.5.3 Logging and wood harvesting 92
Retain forested corridors in logged areas 93
Thin trees within forest and woodland 94
Use selective or reduced impact logging instead of conventional logging 94
Manage forest and woodland to encourage understorey growth 95
Retain residual tree patches in logged areas 96
Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting 96
Change timing of forestry operations 96
Encourage natural regeneration in former plantations 97
Maintain forest and woodland edges for foraging bats 97
Protect roost trees during forest operations 97
Replant native trees in logged areas 97
Retain buffers around roost trees in logged areas 97
Retain riparian buffers in logged areas 97
Strengthen cultural traditions such as sacred groves that prevent timber harvesting 97
Train arborists and forestry operatives to identify potential bat roosts 97
2.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance 98
Impose restrictions on cave visits 99
Install and maintain cave gates to restrict public access 99
Install fencing around cave entrances to restrict public access 100
Minimize noise levels within caves 101
Restrict artificial lighting in caves and around cave entrances 101
Inform the public of ways to reduce disturbance to bats in caves 102
Introduce guidelines for sustainable cave development and use 102
Minimize alterations to caves for tourism 102
Provide artificial subterranean bat roosts to replace roosts in disturbed caves 102
Restore and maintain microclimate in modified caves 102
Retain bat access points to caves 102
Train tourist guides to minimize disturbance and promote bat conservation 102
2.7 Threat: Natural system modifications 103
2.7.1 Fire or fire suppression 103
2.7.2 Dams and water management/use 105
Create or maintain small dams to provide foraging and drinking habitat for bats 105
Relocate bat colonies roosting inside dams 105
2.8 Threat: Invasive or problematic species and disease 106
Control invasive predators 106
Control invasive plant species 107
Control harmful invasive bat prey species 107
Control invasive non-predatory competitors 107
Exclude domestic and feral cats from bat roosts and roost entrances 107
Keep domestic cats indoors at night 107
Use collar-mounted devices on cats to reduce predation of bats 107
Modify bat hibernacula environments to increase bat survival 108
Treat bats for infection with white-nose syndrome 109
Breed bats in captivity to supplement wild populations affected by white-nose syndrome 109
Decontaminate clothing and equipment after entering caves 109
Restrict human access to bat caves to prevent spread of disease 109
Treat bat hibernacula environments to reduce pathogen reservoir 109
Vaccinate bats against the white-nose syndrome pathogen 109
Carry out surveillance of bats for early treatment/action to reduce disease/viruses 110
2.8.4 Problematic native species 110
Modify bats roosts to reduce negative impacts of one bat species on another 110
Protect bats within roosts from disturbance or predation by native species 110
2.9.1 Domestic and urban waste water 111
Change effluent treatments of domestic and urban waste water 111
Prevent pollution from sewage treatment facilities from entering watercourses 112
Reduce or prevent the use of septic systems near caves 112
2.9.2 Agricultural and forestry effluents 112
Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertiliser use 112
Change effluent treatments used in agriculture and forestry 113
Introduce legislation to control the use of hazardous substances 113
Plant riparian buffer strips 113
Prevent pollution from agricultural land or forestry from entering watercourses 113
Use organic pest control instead of synthetic pesticides 113
Avoid illumination of bat commuting routes 114
Leave bat roosts and roost entrances unlit 115
Use low intensity lighting 115
Use red lighting rather than other lighting colours 116
Avoid illumination of bat foraging, drinking and swarming sites 116
Restrict timing of lighting 117
Direct lighting away from bat access points or habitats 117
Use 'warm white' rather than 'cool' LED lights 117
Use glazing treatments to reduce light spill from inside lit buildings 117
Restrict timing of timber treatment application 118
Use mammal-safe timber treatments in roof spaces 118
2.9.5 Industrial effluents 119
Introduce or enforce legislation to prevent ponds and streams from being contaminated by toxins 119
Impose noise limits in proximity to bat roosts and habitats 119
Install sound barriers in proximity to bat roosts and habitats 119
2.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather 120
Adapt bat roost structures to buffer against temperature extremes 120
Manage natural water bodies in arid areas to prevent desiccation 120
Provide suitable bat foraging and roosting habitat at expanding range fronts 120
Legally protect bat habitats 121
Conserve roosting sites for bats in old structures or buildings 122
Retain buffer zones around core bat habitat 123
Retain connectivity between habitat patches 123
Retain existing bat commuting routes 123
Retain native forest and woodland 123
Retain remnant habitat patches 123
Retain veteran and standing dead trees as roosting sites for bats 123
2.12 Habitat restoration and creation 124
Create artificial water sources 124
Restore or create wetlands 125
Create artificial caves or hibernacula for bats 125
Create artificial hollows and cracks in trees for roosting bats 126
Reinstate bat roosts in felled tree trunks 126
Restore or create forest or woodland 126
Restore or create grassland 127
Create new unlit commuting routes using planting 127
Restore or create linear habitat features/green corridors 127
Manage microclimate of artificial bat roosts 128
Provide bat boxes for roosting bats 129
Legally protect bat species 130
Regularly clean bat boxes to increase occupancy 130
2.13.2 Ex-situ conservation 131
Rehabilitate injured/orphaned bats to maintain wild bat populations 131
2.14 Education and awareness raising 134
Educate the public to improve perception of bats to improve behaviour towards bats 135
Engage policymakers to make policy changes beneficial to bats 135
Promote careful bat-related eco-tourism to improve behaviour towards bats 135
Legally protect habitats for birds 139
Provide or retain un-harvested buffer strips 140
Ensure connectivity between habitat patches 140
3.2 Education and awareness raising 141
Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information 141
Provide bird feeding materials to families with young children 142
Enhance bird taxonomy skills through higher education and training 142
Provide training to conservationists and land managers on bird ecology and conservation 142
3.3 Threat: Residential and commercial development 143
Angle windows to reduce bird collisions 143
Mark windows to reduce bird collisions 143
Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture 145
Provide (or retain) set-aside areas in farmland 146
Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields 146
Increase the proportion of natural/semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape 147
Manage ditches to benefit wildlife 147
Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures 147
Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields 148
Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips 148
Leave refuges in fields during harvest 148
Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using bird scarers) 149
Relocate nests at harvest time to reduce nestling mortality 149
Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality 149
Offer per clutch payment for farmland birds 150
Manage hedges to benefit wildlife 150
Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using repellents) 150
Take field corners out of management 151
Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing 151
Cross compliance standards for all subsidy payments 151
Food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming 151
Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit birds 151
Reduce field size (or maintain small fields) 151
Support or maintain low-intensity agricultural systems 151
Tree pollarding, tree surgery 151
Create ‘skylark plots’ (undrilled patches in cereal fields) 152
Leave uncropped cultivated margins or fallow land (includes lapwing and stone curlew plots) 153
Sow crops in spring rather than autumn 154
Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example 154
Implement mosaic management 155
Increase crop diversity to benefit birds 155
Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping) 155
Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows 156
Revert arable land to permanent grassland 156
Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings 156
Leave unharvested cereal headlands within arable fields 156
Delay mowing date on grasslands 157
Leave uncut rye grass in silage fields 158
Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland 158
Maintain traditional water meadows 158
Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality 159
Plant cereals for whole crop silage 159
Reduce management intensity of permanent grasslands 160
Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat 160
Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland 160
Maintain upland heath/moor 160
Protect nests from livestock to reduce trampling 161
Provide short grass for waders 161
Raise mowing height on grasslands 161
Use traditional breeds of livestock 161
Maintain lowland heathland 162
Maintain wood pasture and parkland 162
Plant Brassica fodder crops 162
3.4.4 Perennial, non-timber crops 162
Maintain traditional orchards 162
Manage perennial bioenergy crops to benefit wildlife 162
Deter birds from landing on shellfish culture gear 163
Provide refuges for fish within ponds 164
Use electric fencing to exclude fish-eating birds 164
Use ‘mussel socks’ to prevent birds from attacking shellfish 164
Use netting to exclude fish-eating birds 164
Increase water turbidity to reduce fish predation by birds 165
Translocate birds away from fish farms 165
Use in-water devices to reduce fish loss from ponds 165
Disturb birds using foot patrols 165
Spray water to deter birds from ponds 165
Scare birds from fish farms 166
3.5 Threat: Energy production and mining 167
Paint wind turbines to increase their visibility 167
3.6 Threat: Transportation and service corridors 168
Scare or otherwise deter birds from airports 168
3.6.2 Power lines and electricity pylons 169
Bury or isolate power lines 170
Insulate electricity pylons 170
Remove earth wires from power lines 170
Use perch-deterrents to stop raptors perching on pylons 170
Add perches to electricity pylons 171
Reduce electrocutions by using plastic, not metal, leg rings to mark birds 171
Use raptor models to deter birds from power lines 171
3.7 Threat: Biological resource use 172
3.7.1 Reducing exploitation and conflict 172
Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations 173
Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting disturbance 173
Employ local people as ‘biomonitors’ 173
Increase ‘on-the-ground’ protection to reduce unsustainable levels of exploitation 173
Introduce voluntary ‘maximum shoot distances’ 174
Mark eggs to reduce their appeal to collectors 174
Move fish-eating birds to reduce conflict with fishermen 174
Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods 174
Provide ‘sacrificial grasslands’ to reduce conflict with farmers 174
Relocate nestlings to reduce poaching 175
Use alerts during shoots to reduce mortality of non-target species 175
3.7.2 Reducing fisheries bycatch 176
Use streamer lines to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines 177
Mark trawler warp cables to reduce seabird collisions 177
Reduce seabird bycatch by releasing offal overboard when setting longlines 177
Weight baits or lines to reduce longline bycatch of seabirds 178
Set lines underwater to reduce seabird bycatch 178
Set longlines at night to reduce seabird bycatch 178
Dye baits to reduce seabird bycatch 178
Thaw bait before setting lines to reduce seabird bycatch 179
Turn deck lights off during night-time setting of longlines to reduce bycatch 179
Use a sonic scarer when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch 179
Use acoustic alerts on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch 179
Use bait throwers to reduce seabird bycatch 179
Use high visibility mesh on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch 180
Use shark liver oil to deter birds when setting lines 180
Use a line shooter to reduce seabird bycatch 180
Reduce bycatch through seasonal or area closures 181
Reduce ‘ghost fishing’ by lost/discarded gear 181
Reduce gillnet deployment time to reduce seabird bycatch 181
Set longlines at the side of the boat to reduce seabird bycatch 181
Tow buoys behind longlining boats to reduce seabird bycatch 181
Use a water cannon when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch 181
Use high-visibility longlines to reduce seabird bycatch 181
Use larger hooks to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines 181
3.8 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance 182
Provide paths to limit disturbance 182
Start educational programmes for personal watercraft owners 183
Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance at nest sites 183
Use voluntary agreements with local people to reduce disturbance 183
Habituate birds to human visitors 183
Use nest covers to reduce the impact of research on predation of ground-nesting seabirds 184
Reduce visitor group sizes 184
Set minimum distances for approaching birds (buffer zones) 184
3.9 Threat: Natural system modifications 185
Create scrapes and pools in wetlands and wet grasslands 187
Provide deadwood/snags in forests (use ring-barking, cutting or silvicides) 187
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting 187
Clear or open patches in forests 187
Employ grazing in artificial grasslands/pastures 188
Employ grazing in natural grasslands 188
Employ grazing in non-grassland habitats 188
Manage water level in wetlands 189
Mow or cut natural grasslands 190
Mow or cut semi-natural grasslands/pastures 190
Raise water levels in ditches or grassland 191
Use prescribed burning: grasslands 191
Use prescribed burning: pine forests 192
Use prescribed burning: savannahs 192
Use prescribed burning: shrublands 192
Use selective harvesting/logging instead of clearcutting 193
Clearcut and re-seed forests 193
Manage woodland edges for birds 194
Plant trees to act as windbreaks 195
Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests) 195
Remove coarse woody debris from forests 195
Replace non-native species of tree/shrub 196
Use environmentally sensitive flood management 196
Use fire suppression/control 196
Use greentree reservoir management 197
Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest) 197
Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting 197
Use variable retention management during forestry operations 197
Apply herbicide to mid- and understorey vegetation 197
Treat wetlands with herbicides 198
Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats) 198
Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests) 198
Protect nest trees before burning 199
3.10 Habitat restoration and creation 200
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands) 201
Restore or create grassland 201
Restore or create traditional water meadows 202
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands) 202
Restore or create shrubland 202
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests) 203
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons) 203
Restore or create savannahs 203
3.11 Threat: Invasive alien and other problematic species 204
3.11.1 Reduce predation by other species 204
Control mammalian predators on islands 205
Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities 205
Control avian predators on islands 205
Control invasive ants on islands 206
Reduce predation by translocating predators 206
Control predators not on islands 206
3.11.2 Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control 207
Distribute poison bait using dispensers 207
Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control 207
Do birds take bait designed for pest control? 208
3.11.3 Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas 208
Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing 209
Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks 209
Protect bird nests using electric fencing 209
Use artificial nests that discourage predation 210
Guard nests to prevent predation 210
Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation 210
Use multiple barriers to protect nests 210
Use naphthalene to deter mammalian predators 211
Use snakeskin to deter mammalian nest predators 211
Play spoken-word radio programmes to deter predators 211
Use ‘cat curfews’ to reduce predation 211
Use lion dung to deter domestic cats 211
Use mirrors to deter nest predators 211
Use ultrasonic devices to deter cats 211
Can nest protection increase nest abandonment? 211
Can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks? 212
3.11.4 Reduce mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behaviour 212
Reduce predation by translocating nest boxes 212
Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation 213
Use supplementary feeding to reduce predation 213
Use aversive conditioning to reduce nest predation 213
3.11.5 Reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites 214
Reduce inter-specific competition for food by removing or controlling competitor species 214
Protect nest sites from competitors 215
Reduce competition between species by providing nest boxes 215
Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (songbirds) 216
Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (woodpeckers) 216
3.11.6 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species 217
Control or remove habitat-altering mammals 217
Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (terrestrial species) 217
Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (aquatic species) 218
Remove problematic vegetation 218
Use buffer zones to reduce the impact of invasive plant control 218
3.11.7 Reduce parasitism and disease 219
Remove/control adult brood parasites 219
Remove/treat endoparasites and diseases 220
Alter artificial nest sites to discourage brood parasitism 220
Exclude or control ‘reservoir species’ to reduce parasite burdens 220
Remove brood parasite eggs from target species’ nests 220
Use false brood parasite eggs to discourage brood parasitism 221
3.11.8 Reduce detrimental impacts of other problematic species 222
Use copper strips to exclude snails from nests 222
3.12.1 Industrial pollution 223
Relocate birds following oil spills 224
Use repellents to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining 224
Clean birds after oil spills 224
3.12.2 Agricultural pollution 225
Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands) 225
Provide food for vultures to reduce mortality from diclofenac 226
Reduce pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use generally 226
Reduce chemical inputs in permanent grassland management 226
Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals 226
Make selective use of spring herbicides 227
Provide buffer strips along rivers and streams 227
Provide unfertilised cereal headlands in arable fields 227
Use buffer strips around in-field ponds 227
Use organic rather than mineral fertilisers 227
3.12.3 Air-borne pollutants 227
Use lime to reduce acidification in lakes 227
Shield lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights 228
Turning off lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights 228
Use flashing lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights 229
Use lights low in spectral red to reduce mortality from artificial lights 229
Reduce the intensity of lighthouse beams 229
Using volunteers to collect and rehabilitate downed birds 229
3.13 Threat: Climate change, extreme weather and geological events 230
Replace nesting habitats when they are washed away by storms 230
Water nesting mounds to increase incubation success in malleefowl 231
3.14 General responses to small/declining populations 232
3.14.1 Inducing breeding, rehabilitation and egg removal 232
Rehabilitate injured birds 232
Remove eggs from wild nests to increase reproductive output 232
Use artificial visual and auditory stimuli to induce breeding in wild populations 233
3.14.2 Provide artificial nesting sites 233
Provide artificial nests (falcons) 234
Provide artificial nests (owls) 235
Provide artificial nests (songbirds) 235
Provide artificial nests (wildfowl) 236
Clean artificial nests to increase occupancy or reproductive success 236
Provide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds) 237
Provide artificial nests (divers/loons) 237
Provide artificial nests (ground- and tree-nesting seabirds) 237
Provide artificial nests (oilbirds) 237
Provide artificial nests (raptors) 238
Provide artificial nests (wildfowl — artificial/floating islands) 238
Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests 238
Provide artificial nests (gamebirds) 239
Provide artificial nests (grebes) 239
Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos) 239
Provide artificial nests (parrots) 239
Provide artificial nests (pigeons) 240
Provide artificial nests (rails) 240
Provide artificial nests (rollers) 240
Provide artificial nests (swifts) 240
Provide artificial nests (trogons) 240
Provide artificial nests (waders) 240
Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers) 241
Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather 241
Provide nesting material for wild birds 241
Remove vegetation to create nesting areas 241
Repair/support nests to support breeding 242
Use differently-coloured artificial nests 242
3.14.3 Foster chicks in the wild 242
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (raptors) 243
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (songbirds) 243
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (bustards) 244
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (cranes) 244
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (gannets and boobies) 244
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (owls) 244
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (parrots) 244
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (vultures) 245
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (waders) 245
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (woodpeckers) 245
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (cranes) 245
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (ibises) 245
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (petrels and shearwaters) 246
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (waders) 246
3.14.4 Provide supplementary food 246
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (songbirds) 248
Place feeders close to windows to reduce collisions 249
Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success 249
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (cranes) 249
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gulls, terns and skuas) 249
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (owls) 250
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (raptors) 250
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (songbirds) 250
Provide perches to improve foraging success 251
Provide supplementary food through the establishment of food populations 251
Provide supplementary food to allow the rescue of a second chick 252
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gamebirds) 252
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gulls, terns and skuas) 252
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (hummingbirds) 252
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (nectar-feeding songbirds) 253
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (pigeons) 253
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (raptors) 254
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (vultures) 254
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (waders) 254
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (wildfowl) 254
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (woodpeckers) 255
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (auks) 255
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gamebirds) 255
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gannets and boobies) 255
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (ibises) 256
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (kingfishers) 256
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (parrots) 256
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (petrels) 256
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (pigeons) 257
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (rails and coots) 257
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (vultures) 257
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (waders) 258
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (wildfowl) 258
Provide supplementary water to increase survival or reproductive success 258
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (birds in general) 260
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (raptors) 260
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (parrots) 260
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (pelicans) 260
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (rails) 261
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (songbirds) 261
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (wildfowl) 261
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (woodpeckers) 262
Use decoys to attract birds to new sites 262
Use techniques to increase the survival of species after capture 262
Use vocalisations to attract birds to new sites 262
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (gamebirds) 263
Alter habitats to encourage birds to leave 263
Ensure translocated birds are familiar with each other before release 263
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (auks) 263
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (megapodes) 264
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (owls) 264
Translocate nests to avoid disturbance 264
Ensure genetic variation to increase translocation success 264
3.15 Captive breeding, rearing and releases (ex situ conservation) 265
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors) 266
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds) 267
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds) 267
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders) 267
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors) 268
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards) 268
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes) 268
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds) 269
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots) 269
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins) 269
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails) 269
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises) 270
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (vultures) 270
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (wildfowl) 270
Freeze semen for artificial insemination 270
Use artificial insemination in captive breeding 271
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (bustards) 271
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (cranes) 271
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (pigeons) 271
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (rails) 272
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (seabirds) 272
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (songbirds) 272
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (storks and ibises) 272
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (tinamous) 273
Use puppets to increase the success of hand-rearing 273
Wash contaminated semen and use it for artificial insemination 273
Can captive breeding have deleterious effects? 273
3.15.2 Release captive-bred individuals 274
Provide supplementary food after release 275
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (cranes) 275
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (raptors) 275
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (vultures) 276
Clip birds’ wings on release 276
Release birds as adults or sub-adults not juveniles 277
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (bustards) 277
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (owls) 278
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (parrots) 278
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (pigeons) 278
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (rails) 278
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (waders) 279
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (wildfowl) 279
Release chicks and adults in ‘coveys’ 280
Use ‘anti-predator training’ to improve survival after release 280
Use appropriate populations to source released populations 280
Use ‘flying training’ before release 280
Use holding pens at release sites 280
Use microlites to help birds migrate 281
Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields 286
Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields 287
Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips 287
Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture 287
Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland 288
Manage ditches to benefit wildlife 288
Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife (includes no spray, gap-filling and laying) 288
Pay farmers to cover the cost of conservation measures (as in agri-environment schemes) 289
Provide supplementary food for birds or mammals 289
Connect areas of natural or semi-natural habitat 289
Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape 290
Make direct payments per clutch for farmland birds 290
Manage the agricultural landscape to enhance floral resources 290
Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing 290
Provide nest boxes for bees (solitary bees or bumblebees) 291
Provide nest boxes for birds 291
Provide other resources for birds (water, sand for bathing) 292
Provide refuges during harvest or mowing 292
Apply ‘cross compliance’ environmental standards linked to all subsidy payments 292
Introduce nest boxes stocked with solitary bees 292
Maintain in-field elements such as field islands and rockpiles 292
Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit wildlife 292
Manage woodland edges to benefit wildlife 292
Plant in-field trees (not farm woodland) 292
Protect in-field trees (includes management such as pollarding and surgery) 292
Provide foraging perches (e.g. for shrikes) 292
Provide red squirrel feeders 292
Reduce field size (or maintain small fields) 292
Restore or maintain dry stone walls 292
Support or maintain low intensity agricultural systems 292
Leave cultivated, uncropped margins or plots (includes ‘lapwing plots’) 294
Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example 295
Convert or revert arable land to permanent grassland 296
Create rotational grass or clover leys 296
Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows 296
Plant crops in spring rather than autumn 296
Sow rare or declining arable weeds 297
Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings 297
Leave unharvested cereal headlands in arable fields 297
Use new crop types to benefit wildlife (such as perennial cereal crops) 297
Implement ‘mosaic management’, a Dutch agri-environment option 297
Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping) 298
Take field corners out of management 298
4.3 Perennial (non-timber) crops 299
Maintain traditional orchards 299
Manage short-rotation coppice to benefit wildlife (includes 8 m rides) 299
Restore or create traditional orchards 299
Restore or create species-rich, semi-natural grassland 301
Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality 301
Delay mowing or first grazing date on grasslands 302
Leave uncut strips of rye grass on silage fields 302
Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland 302
Maintain upland heath/moorland 303
Reduce management intensity on permanent grasslands (several interventions at once) 303
Restore or create traditional water meadows 304
Add yellow rattle seed Rhinanthus minor to hay meadows 304
Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland) 304
Maintain wood pasture and parkland 305
Plant cereals for whole crop silage 305
Raise mowing height on grasslands 305
Restore or create upland heath/moorland 305
Restore or create wood pasture 306
Use traditional breeds of livestock 306
Reduce grazing intensity on grassland (including seasonal removal of livestock) 306
Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality 307
Plant brassica fodder crops (grazed in situ) 307
Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland 307
Provide short grass for birds 307
4.5 Threat: Residential and commercial development 308
Provide owl nest boxes (tawny owl, barn owl) 308
Maintain traditional farm buildings 308
Provide bat boxes, bat grilles, improvements to roosts 308
4.6 Threat: Agri-chemicals 309
Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands) 309
Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally 310
Use organic rather than mineral fertilizers 310
Reduce chemical inputs in grassland management 310
Provide buffer strips alongside water courses (rivers and streams) 311
Restrict certain pesticides 311
Make selective use of spring herbicides 311
4.7 Threat: Transport and service corridors 312
Manage land under power lines to benefit wildlife 312
4.8 Threat: Hunting and trapping (for pest control, food or sport) 313
Enforce legislation to protect birds against persecution 313
Provide ‘sacrificial’ grasslands to reduce the impact of wild geese on crops 314
Use alerts to reduce grey partridge by-catch during shoots 314
Use scaring devices (e.g. gas guns) and other deterrents to reduce persecution of native species 314
4.9 Threat: Natural system modification 315
Raise water levels in ditches or grassland 315
Manage heather by swiping to simulate burning 316
Manage heather, gorse or grass by burning 316
Remove flood defence banks to allow inundation 316
4.10 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species 318
Control predatory mammals and birds (foxes, crows, stoats and weasels) 319
Control weeds without damaging other plants in conservation areas 319
Protect individual nests of ground-nesting birds 319
Erect predator-proof fencing around important breeding sites for waders 320
Control invasive non-native plants on farmland (such as Himalayan balsam, Japanese knotweed) 320
Provide medicated grit for grouse 320
4.11 Threat: Education and awareness 321
Provide specialist advice, assistance preparing conservation plans 321
Provide training for land managers, farmers and farm advisers 321
5.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development 325
5.1.1 Housing and urban areas 325
Compensate for woodland removal with compensatory planting 325
Incorporate existing trees or woods into the landscape of new developments 325
Provide legal protection of forests from development 325
5.1.2 Tourism and recreation areas 326
Create managed paths/signs to contain disturbance 326
Re-route paths, control access or close paths 326
Use warning signs to prevent fire 326
Use wire fences within grazing areas to exclude livestock from specific forest sections 327
Prevent livestock grazing in forests 328
Reduce the intensity of livestock grazing in forests 328
Shorten livestock grazing period or control grazing season in forests 328
Provide financial incentives not to graze 329
5.3 Threat: Transport and service corridors 330
Maintain/create habitat corridors 330
5.4 Threat: Biological resource use 331
5.4.1 Thinning and wood harvesting 331
Log/remove trees within forests: effects on understory plants 332
Thin trees within forests: effects on understory plants 332
Thin trees within forests: effects on young trees 332
Use shelterwood harvest instead of clearcutting 332
Thin trees within forests: effects on mature trees 333
Log/remove trees within forests: effects on young trees 333
Use partial retention harvesting instead of clearcutting 333
Use summer instead of winter harvesting 333
Remove woody debris after timber harvest 334
Log/remove trees within forests: effect on mature trees 334
Log/remove trees within forests: effect on effects on non-vascular plants 334
Thin trees within forests: effects on non-vascular plants 335
Adopt continuous cover forestry 335
Use brash mats during harvesting to avoid soil compaction 335
5.4.2 Harvest forest products 335
Sustainable management of non-timber products 336
Provide fuel efficient stoves 336
5.5.1 Changing fire frequency 337
Use prescribed fire: effect on understory plants 337
Use prescribed fire: effect on young trees 338
Use prescribed fire: effect on mature trees 338
Mechanically remove understory vegetation to reduce wildfires 338
Use herbicides to remove understory vegetation to reduce wildfires 338
Construct water detention areas to slow water flow and restore riparian forests 339
Introduce beavers to impede water flow in forest watercourses 339
Recharge groundwater to restore wetland forest 339
5.5.3 Changing disturbance regime 339
Use clearcutting to increase understory diversity 340
Use group-selection harvesting 340
Use shelterwood harvesting 341
Thin trees by girdling (cutting rings around tree trunks) 341
Use herbicides to thin trees 341
Use thinning followed by prescribed fire 341
Adopt conservation grazing of woodland 342
Imitate natural disturbances by pushing over trees 342
Pollard trees (top cutting or top pruning) 342
Reintroduce large herbivores 342
5.6 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species 343
Manually/mechanically remove invasive plants 343
Use herbicides to remove invasive plant species 343
Use grazing to remove invasive plant species 344
Use prescribed fire to remove invasive plant species 344
Manually/mechanically remove native plants 344
Use wire fences to exclude large native herbivores 345
Use electric fencing to exclude large native herbivores 345
Control large herbivore populations 345
Control medium-sized herbivores 345
Use fencing to enclose large herbivores (e.g. deer) 345
Maintain/create buffer zones 347
Remove nitrogen and phosphorus using harvested products 347
5.8 Threat: Climate change and severe weather 348
Prevent damage from strong winds 348
Adopt community-based management to protect forests 349
Legal protection of forests 349
Adopt Protected Species legislation (impact on forest management) 350
5.10 Habitat restoration and creation 351
5.10.1 Restoration after wildfire 351
Sow tree seeds after wildfire 352
Plant trees after wildfire 352
5.10.2 Restoration after agriculture 352
Restore wood pasture (e.g. introduce grazing) 353
5.10.3 Manipulate habitat to increase planted tree survival during restoration 353
Apply herbicides after restoration planting 353
Cover the ground using techniques other than plastic mats after restoration planting 354
Cover the ground with plastic mats after restoration planting 354
Use selective thinning after restoration planting 354
5.10.4 Restore forest community 354
Build bird-perches to enhance natural seed dispersal 355
Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance diversity 355
Water plants to preserve dry tropical forest species 355
Restore woodland herbaceous plants using transplants and nursery plugs 355
Use rotational grazing to restore oak savannas 355
5.10.5 Prevent/encourage leaf litter accumulation 356
Remove or disturb leaf litter to enhance germination 356
Encourage leaf litter development in new planting 356
5.10.6 Increase soil fertility 356
Use vegetation removal together with mechanical disturbance to the soil 357
Use soil scarification or ploughing to enhance germination 358
Add lime to the soil to increase fertility 358
Use soil disturbance to enhance germination (excluding scarification or ploughing) 359
5.11 Actions to improve survival and growth rate of planted trees 360
Prepare the ground before tree planting 361
Use mechanical thinning before or after planting 361
Fence to prevent grazing after tree planting 362
Use herbicide after tree planting 362
Use prescribed fire after tree planting 362
Apply insecticide to protect seedlings from invertebrates 362
Add lime to the soil after tree planting 363
Add organic matter after tree planting 363
Cover the ground with straw after tree planting 363
Improve soil quality after tree planting (excluding applying fertilizer) 363
Manage woody debris before tree planting 363
Use shading for planted trees 364
Use tree guards or shelters to protect planted trees 364
Use weed mats to protect planted trees 364
Mechanically remove understory vegetation after tree planting 364
Use different planting or seeding methods 365
Use fertilizer after tree planting 365
Apply fungicide to protect seedlings from fungal diseases 365
Infect tree seedlings with mycorrhizae 365
Introduce leaf litter to forest stands 365
Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance the survival and growth of planted trees 365
Reduce erosion to increase seedling survival 365
Use pioneer plants or crops as nurse-plants 365
5.12 Education and awareness raising 366
Provide education programmes about forests 366
Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information 366
6.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development 369
Remove residential or commercial development from peatlands 369
Retain/create habitat corridors in developed areas 369
6.2 Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture 370
6.2.1 Multiple farming systems 370
Retain/create habitat corridors in farmed areas 370
Implement ‘mosaic management’ of agriculture 371
6.2.2 Wood and pulp plantations 371
Cut/remove/thin forest plantations 371
Cut/remove/thin forest plantations and rewet peat 372
6.2.3 Livestock farming and ranching 373
Exclude or remove livestock from degraded peatlands 373
Reduce intensity of livestock grazing 374
Use barriers to keep livestock off ungrazed peatlands 375
Change season/timing of livestock grazing 375
6.3 Threat: Energy production and mining 376
Replace blocks of vegetation after mining or peat extraction 376
Retain/create habitat corridors in areas of energy production or mining 377
6.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors 378
Maintain/restore water flow across service corridors 378
Backfill trenches dug for pipelines 378
Retain/create habitat corridors across service corridors 378
6.5 Threat: Biological resource use 379
Reduce intensity of harvest 379
Reduce frequency of harvest 380
Use low impact harvesting techniques 380
Use low impact vehicles for harvesting 380
Implement ‘mosaic management’ when harvesting wild biological resources 380
Provide new technologies to reduce pressure on wild biological resources 380
6.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance 381
Physically exclude vehicles from peatlands 381
Restrict vehicle use on peatlands 382
Restrict pedestrian access to peatlands 382
Physically exclude pedestrians from peatlands 382
Install boardwalks/paths to prevent trampling 382
Wear snowshoes to prevent trampling 382
Adopt ecotourism principles/create an ecotourism site 382
6.7 Threat: Natural system modifications 383
6.7.1 Modified water management 383
Rewet peatland (raise water table) 383
Reduce water level of flooded peatlands 386
Restore natural water level fluctuations 386
6.7.2 Modified vegetation management 386
Cut/mow herbaceous plants to maintain or restore disturbance 387
Cut large trees/shrubs to maintain or restore disturbance 388
Use grazing to maintain or restore disturbance 389
Remove plant litter to maintain or restore disturbance 390
Use prescribed fire to maintain or restore disturbance 391
6.7.3 Modified wild fire regime 391
Thin vegetation to prevent wild fires 392
Rewet peat to prevent wild fires 392
Adopt zero burning policies near peatlands 392
6.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species 393
6.8.1 All problematic species 393
Implement biosecurity measures to prevent introductions of problematic species 393
Use prescribed fire to control problematic plants 394
Physically remove problematic plants 395
Use cutting/mowing to control problematic herbaceous plants 396
Change season/timing of cutting/mowing 396
Use cutting to control problematic large trees/shrubs 397
Use herbicide to control problematic plants 398
Introduce an organism to control problematic plants 398
Physically damage problematic plants 398
Use grazing to control problematic plants 398
Use covers/barriers to control problematic plants 398
Exclude wild herbivores using physical barriers 399
Control populations of wild herbivores 399
6.9.1 Multiple sources of pollution 400
Divert/replace polluted water source(s) 400
Clean waste water before it enters the environment 401
Slow down input water to allow more time for pollutants to be removed 401
Retain or create buffer zones between pollution sources and peatlands 402
Use artificial barriers to prevent pollution entering peatlands 402
Reduce fertilizer or herbicide use near peatlands 402
Manage fertilizer or herbicide application near peatlands 402
6.9.2 Agricultural and aquacultural effluents 402
Convert to organic agriculture or aquaculture near peatlands 402
Limit the density of livestock on farmland near peatlands 402
Use biodegradable oil in farming machinery 402
6.9.3 Industrial and military effluents 402
Remove oil from contaminated peatlands 403
Remove pollutants from waste gases before they enter the environment 403
Add lime to reduce acidity and/or increase fertility 403
Drain/replace acidic water 404
6.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather 405
Add water to peatlands to compensate for drought 405
Plant shelter belts to protect peatlands from wind 405
Build barriers to protect peatlands from the sea 405
Restore/create peatlands in areas that will be climatically suitable in the future 405
6.11 Habitat creation and restoration 406
6.11.1 General habitat creation and restoration 406
Restore/create peatland vegetation (multiple interventions) 406
Restore/create peatland vegetation using the moss layer transfer technique 407
6.11.2 Modify physical habitat only 408
Fill/block ditches to create conditions suitable for peatland plants 409
Remove upper layer of peat/soil 409
Reprofile/relandscape peatland 411
Disturb peatland surface to encourage growth of desirable plants 411
Cover peatland with organic mulch 412
Cover peatland with something other than mulch 413
Stabilize peatland surface to help plants colonize 413
Build artificial bird perches to encourage seed dispersal 413
Roughen peat surface to create microclimates 414
Bury upper layer of peat/soil 414
6.11.3 Introduce peatland vegetation 414
Add mosses to peatland surface 414
Add mixed vegetation to peatland surface 415
Directly plant peatland mosses 416
Directly plant peatland herbs 416
Directly plant peatland trees/shrubs 417
Introduce seeds of peatland herbs 417
Introduce seeds of peatland trees/shrubs 418
6.12 Actions to complement planting 420
Cover peatland with organic mulch (after planting) 421
Cover peatland with something other than mulch (after planting) 421
Reprofile/relandscape peatland (before planting) 422
Add inorganic fertilizer (before/after planting) 423
Introduce nurse plants (to aid focal peatland plants) 424
Irrigate peatland (before/after planting) 424
Create mounds or hollows (before planting) 424
Add fresh peat to peatland (before planting) 425
Remove vegetation that could compete with planted peatland vegetation 425
Add root-associated fungi to plants (before planting) 425
Add lime (before/after planting) 426
Add organic fertilizer (before/after planting) 426
Rewet peatland (before/after planting) 426
Remove upper layer of peat/soil (before planting) 426
Bury upper layer of peat/soil (before planting) 426
Encapsulate planted moss fragments in beads/gel 426
Use fences or barriers to protect planted vegetation 426
Protect or prepare vegetation before planting (other interventions) 426
Pay landowners to protect peatlands 428
Increase ‘on the ground’ protection (e.g. rangers) 428
Create legislation for ‘no net loss’ of wetlands 428
Adopt voluntary agreements to protect peatlands 428
Allow sustainable use of peatlands 428
6.14 Education and awareness 429
Raise awareness amongst the public (general) 429
Provide education or training programmes about peatlands or peatland management 430
Lobby, campaign or demonstrate to protect peatlands 430
Raise awareness amongst the public (wild fire) 430
Raise awareness amongst the public (problematic species) 430
Raise awareness through engaging volunteers in peatland management or monitoring 430
7.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development 433
Remove and relocate ‘problem’ animals 433
Relocate primates to non-residential areas 434
Humans chase primates using random loud noise 436
Prohibit (livestock) farmers from entering protected areas 437
Use nets to keep primates out of fruit trees 437
Create natural habitat islands within agricultural land 437
Use fences as biological corridors for primates 437
Provide sacrificial rows of crops on outer side of fields 437
Compensate farmers for produce loss caused by primates 437
Pay farmers to cover the costs of non-harmful strategies to deter primates 437
Retain nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields 437
Plant nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields 437
Regularly remove traps and snares around agricultural fields 437
Certify farms and market their products as ‘primate friendly’ 437
Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land 437
Install mechanical barriers to deter primates (e.g. fences, ditches) 438
Use of natural hedges to deter primates 438
Use of unpalatable buffer crops 438
Change of crop (i.e. to a crop less palatable to primates) 438
Plant crops favoured by primates away from primate areas 438
Destroy habitat within buffer zones to make them unusable for primates 438
Chase crop-raiding primates using dogs 438
Train langur monkeys to deter rhesus macaques 438
Use loud-speakers to broadcast primate alarm calls 438
Strategically lay out the scent of a primate predator (e.g. leopard, lion) 438
Humans chase primates using bright light 438
7.3 Threat: Energy production and mining 439
Minimize ground vibrations caused by open cast mining activities 439
Establish no-mining zones in/near watersheds so as to preserve water levels and water quality 439
Use ‘set-aside’ areas of natural habitat for primate protection within mining area 439
Create/preserve primate habitat on islands before dam construction 439
7.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors 440
Install rope or pole (canopy) bridges 441
Install green bridges (overpasses) 441
Impose fines for breaking the speed limit or colliding with primates 441
Avoid building roads in key habitat or migration routes 441
Re-use old roads rather than building new roads 441
Re-route vehicles around protected areas 441
Install speed bumps to reduce vehicle collisions with primates 441
Provide adequate signage of presence of primates on or near roads 441
7.5 Threat: Biological resource use 442
Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols 443
Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares 443
Provide better equipment (e.g. guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols 443
Implement local no-hunting community policies/traditional hunting ban 444
Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares 444
Strengthen/support/re-install traditions/taboos that forbid the killing of primates 444
Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols 445
Implement no-hunting seasons for primates 445
Implement sustainable harvesting of primates (e.g. with permits, resource access agreements) 445
Encourage use of traditional hunting methods rather than using guns 445
Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal primate bushmeat 445
Provide medicine to local communities to control killing of primates for medicinal purposes 445
Inspect bushmeat markets for illegal primate species 445
Inform hunters of the dangers (e.g., disease transmission) of wild primate meat 445
Use selective logging instead of clear-cutting 447
Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates 447
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clear-cutting 447
Implement small and dispersed logging compartments 447
Use shelter wood cutting instead of clear-cutting 447
Leave hollow trees in areas of selective logging for sleeping sites 447
Clear open patches in the forest 447
Manually control or remove secondary mid-storey and ground-level vegetation 447
Avoid slashing climbers/lianas, trees housing them, hemi-epiphytic figs, and ground vegetation 447
Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas 447
Close non-essential roads as soon as logging operations are complete 447
Use ‘set-asides’ for primate protection within logging area 447
Reduce the size of forestry teams to include employees only (not family members) 448
Certify forest concessions and market their products as ‘primate friendly’ 448
Provide domestic meat to workers of the logging company to reduce hunting 448
7.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance 449
Implement a ‘no-feeding of wild primates’ policy 449
Put up signs to warn people about not feeding primates 450
Resettle illegal human communities (i.e. in a protected area) to another location 450
Build fences to keep humans out 450
Restrict number of people that are allowed access to the site 450
Install ‘primate-proof’ garbage bins 450
Do not allow people to consume food within natural areas where primates can view them 450
7.7 Threat: Natural system modifications 451
Use prescribed burning within the context of home range size and use 451
Protect important food/nest trees before burning 451
7.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species and genes 452
7.8.1 Problematic animal/plant species and genes 452
Reduce primate predation by non-primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation 453
Control inter-specific competition for food through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation 453
7.8.2 Disease transmission 453
Preventative vaccination of habituated or wild primates 454
Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates 455
Keep safety distance to habituated animals 455
Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated animals 455
Implement quarantine for primates before reintroduction/translocation 456
Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy 456
Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc 456
Treat sick/injured animals 456
Remove/treat external/internal parasites to increase reproductive success/survival 457
Conduct veterinary screens of animals before reintroducing/translocating them 457
Implement continuous health monitoring with permanent vet on site 458
Implement quarantine for people arriving at, and leaving the site 458
Wear gloves when handling primate food, tool items, etc 458
Control ‘reservoir’ species to reduce parasite burdens/pathogen sources 458
Avoid contact between wild primates and human-raised primates 458
Implement a health programme for local communities 458
Reduce garbage/solid waste to avoid primate injuries 459
Reduce noise pollution by restricting development activities to certain times of the day/night 460
7.10 Education and Awareness 461
Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use 461
Involve local community in primate research and conservation management 462
Regularly play TV and radio announcements to raise primate conservation awareness 462
Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, and discussions 462
Install billboards to raise primate conservation awareness 463
Integrate local religion/taboos into conservation education 463
Create/protect habitat corridors 464
Legally protect primate habitat 465
Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes 465
Create buffer zones around protected primate habitat 466
Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas 466
7.11.2 Habitat creation or restoration 466
Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas 466
Use weeding to promote regeneration of indigenous tree communities 467
Guard habituated primate groups to ensure their safety/well-being 468
Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc 469
Implement legal protection for primate species under threat 469
Implement birth control to stabilize primate community/population size 469
Regularly and continuously provide supplementary food to primates 470
Regularly provide supplementary food to primates during resource scarce periods only 470
Provide supplementary food for a certain period of time only 471
Provide additional sleeping platforms/nesting sites for primates 471
Provide artificial water sources 471
Provide salt licks for primates 472
Provide supplementary food to primates through the establishment of prey populations 472
7.12.3 Species reintroduction 472
Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is absent 473
Reintroduce primates in groups 474
Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals 475
Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present 475
Reintroduce primates into habitat with predators 475
Reintroduce primates into habitat without predators 476
7.12.4 Ex-situ conservation 476
Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and reared in cages 476
Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: limited free-ranging experience 477
Rehabilitate injured/orphaned primates 477
Fostering appropriate behaviour to facilitate rehabilitation 478
7.13 Livelihood; economic and other incentives 479
7.13.2 Long-term presence of research/tourism project 480
Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site 481
Run tourism project and ensure permanent human presence at site 481
Permanent presence of staff/managers 482
8. SHRUBLAND AND HEATHLAND CONSERVATION 483
8.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development 485
Remove residential or commercial development 485
Maintain/create habitat corridors in developed areas 485
8.2 Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture 486
Reduce number of livestock 486
Use fences to exclude livestock from shrublands 487
Shorten the period during which livestock can graze 488
8.3 Threat: Energy production and mining 489
Maintain/create habitat corridors in areas of energy production or mining 489
8.4 Threat: Biological resource use 490
Legally protect plant species affected by gathering 490
Place signs to deter gathering of shrubland species 490
Reduce the frequency of prescribed burning 490
8.5 Threat: Transportation and service corridors 491
Maintain habitat corridors over or under roads and other transportation corridors 491
Create buffer zones besides roads and other transportation corridors 491
8.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance 492
Re-route paths to reduce habitat disturbance 492
Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance 492
Plant spiny shrubs to act as barriers to people 492
8.7 Threat: Natural system modifications 493
8.7.1 Modified fire regime 493
Use prescribed burning to mimic natural fire cycle 493
Use prescribed burning to reduce the potential for large wild fires 493
Cut strips of vegetation to reduce the spread of fire 493
8.7.2 Modified vegetation management 493
Reinstate the use of traditional burning practices 494
Use cutting/mowing to mimic grazing 494
Increase number of livestock 494
8.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species 496
8.8.1 Problematic tree species 496
Cut trees and remove leaf litter 497
Cut trees and remove seedlings 497
Use prescribed burning to control trees 497
Use grazing to control trees 498
Cut trees and apply herbicide 498
Cut trees and use prescribed burning 498
Increase number of livestock and use prescribed burning to control trees 498
Cut/mow shrubland to control trees 499
Cut trees and increase livestock numbers 499
8.8.2 Problematic grass species 499
Cut/mow to control grass and sow seed of shrubland plants 500
Cut/mow and rotovate to control grass 501
Apply herbicide and sow seeds of shrubland plants to control grass 501
Apply herbicide and remove plants to control grass 501
Use grazing to control grass 502
Use precribed burning to control grass 502
Cut and use prescribed burning to control grass 502
Use herbicide and prescribed burning to control grass 502
Strip turf to control grass 502
Add mulch to control grass 503
Add mulch to control grass and sow seed 503
Cut/mow, rotovate and sow seeds to control grass 503
Use herbicide to control grass 504
Use herbicide to control bracken 505
Cut and apply herbicide to control bracken 506
Use ‘bracken bruiser’ to control bracken 507
Use herbicide and remove leaf litter to control bracken 507
Use herbicide and sow seed of shrubland plants to control bracken 507
Increase grazing intensity to control bracken 508
Use herbicide and increase livestock numbers to control bracken 508
Use fences to exclude large herbivores 508
Reduce numbers of large herbivores 508
Use biological control to reduce the number of problematic invertebrates 508
Mow shrubland to reduce impact of pollutants 509
Burn shrublands to reduce impacts of pollutants 510
Plant vegetation to act as a buffer to exclude vegetation 510
Reduce pesticide use on nearby agricultural/forestry land 510
Reduce herbicide use on nearby agricultural/forestry land 510
Reduce fertilizer use on nearby agricultural/forestry land 510
Add lime to shrubland to reduce the impacts of sulphur dioxide pollution 510
8.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather 511
Restore habitat in area predicted to have suitable habitat for shrubland species in the future 511
8.11 Threat: Habitat protection 512
Legally protect habitat around shrubland 512
8.12 Habitat restoration and creation 513
8.12.1 General restoration 513
Allow shrubland to regenerate without active management 513
Restore/create connectivity between shrublands. 514
8.12.2 Modify physical habitat 514
Use erosion blankets/mats to aid plant establishment 516
Add mulch and fertilizer to soil 517
Irrigate degraded shrublands 517
Remove trees/crops to restore shrubland structure 517
Remove trees, leaf litter and topsoil 517
8.12.3 Introduce vegetation or seeds 517
Sow seeds and plant individual plants 519
Build bird perches to encourage colonization by plants 520
8.13 Actions to benefit introduced vegetation 521
Add fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/seeding) 521
Add peat to soil (alongside planting/seeding) 522
Add mulch and fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/seeding) 522
Add gypsum to soil (alongside planting/seeding) 522
Add sulphur to soil (alongside planting/seeding) 522
Strip/disturb topsoil (alongside planting/seeding) 523
Add topsoil (alongside planting/seeding) 523
Plant/sow seeds of nurse plants alongside focal plants 523
Plant/seed under established vegetation 524
Add root associated bacteria/fungi to introduced plants 524
8.14 Education and awareness 525
Raise awareness amongst the general public 525
Provide education programmes about shrublands 525
9. MANAGEMENT OF CAPTIVE ANIMALS 527
9.1 Ex-situ conservation – breeding amphibians 529
9.1.1 Refining techniques using less threatened species 529
9.1.2 Changing environmental conditions/microclimate 530
Vary enclosure temperature to simulate seasonal changes in the wild 530
Provide artificial aquifers for species which breed in upwelling springs 531
Vary artificial rainfall to simulate seasonal changes in the wild 531
Vary duration of enclosure lighting to simulate seasonal changes in the wild 532
Simulate rainfall using sound recordings of rain and/or thunderstorms 532
Allow temperate amphibians to hibernate 532
Allow amphibians from highly seasonal environments to have a period of dormancy 532
Vary water flow/speed of artificial streams in enclosures for torrent breeding species 532
9.1.3 Changing enclosure design for spawning or egg laying sites 532
Provide multiple egg laying sites within an enclosure 532
Provide particular plants as breeding areas or egg laying sites 533
9.1.4 Manipulate social conditions 533
Manipulate sex ratio within the enclosure 533
Separate sexes in non-breeding periods 534
Play recordings of breeding calls to simulate breeding season in the wild 534
Provide visual barriers for territorial species 535
Manipulate adult density within the enclosure 535
9.1.5 Changing the diet of adults 535
Supplement diets with carotenoids (including for colouration) 535
Increase caloric intake of females in preparation for breeding 536
Vary food provision to reflect seasonal availability in the wild 536
Formulate adult diet to reflect nutritional composition of wild foods 536
Supplement diets with vitamins/calcium fed to prey (e.g. prey gut loading) 536
Supplement diets with vitamins/calcium applied to food (e.g. dusting prey). 536
9.1.6 Manipulate rearing conditions for young 536
Manipulate temperature of enclosure to improve development or survival to adulthood 537
Formulate larval diets to improve development or survival to adulthood 537
Manipulate larval density within the enclosure 537
Leave infertile eggs at spawn site as food for egg-eating larvae 538
Manipulate humidity to improve development or survival to adulthood 538
Allow adults to attend their eggs 538
9.1.7 Artificial reproduction 538
Use artificial cloning from frozen or fresh tissue 538
Provide bones, hides or partial carcasses 540
Feed whole carcasses (with or without organs/gastrointestinal tract) 540
Feed commercially prepared diets 540
Feed plant-derived protein 541
Supplement meat-based diets with prebiotic plant material to facilitate digestion 541
Supplement meat-based diet with amino acid 541
Supplement meat-based diet with vitamins or minerals 541
Supplement meat-based diet with fatty acids 541
Increase variety of food items 541
9.2.2 Food presentation and enrichment 542
Hide food around enclosure 542
Present food frozen in ice 542
Present food inside objects (e.g. Boomer balls) 543
Provide devices to simulate live prey, including sounds, lures, pulleys and bungees 543
Change location of food around enclosure 543
Scatter food around enclosure 544
Provide live vertebrate prey 544
Provide live invertebrate prey 544
Use food as a reward in animal training 544
Provide food on a random temporal schedule 545
Alter food abundance or type seasonally 545
Provide food during natural active periods 546
Alter feeding schedule according to visitor activity 546
Provide food during visitor experiences 546
Feed individuals separately 546
Feed individuals within a social group 546
9.3 Promoting natural feeding behaviours in primates in captivity 547
Scatter food throughout enclosure 548
Hide food in containers (including boxes and bags) 548
Present food frozen in ice 548
Present food items whole instead of processed 548
Present feeds at different crowd levels 548
Maximise both vertical and horizontal presentation locations 549
Present food in puzzle feeders 549
Present food in water (including dishes and ponds) 549
Present food dipped in food colouring 549
Provide live vegetation in planters for foraging 549
Present food which required the use (or modification) of tools 550
Paint gum solutions on rough bark 550
Add gum solutions to drilled hollow feeders 550
Provide cut branches (browse) 551
Provide live invertebrates 551
Provide gum (including artificial gum) 551
Provide nectar (including artificial nectar) 551
Provide herbs or other plants for self-medication 551
Modify ingredients/nutrient composition seasonally (not daily) to reflect natural variability 552
Change the number of feeds per day 552
Provide food at natural (wild) feeding times 553
Provide access to food at all times (day and night) 553
9.3.4 Social group manipulation 553
Feed individuals in social groups 553
Feed individuals separately 553
Feed individuals in subgroups 553
10. SOME ASPECTS OF CONTROL OF FRESHWATER INVASIVE SPECIES 555
10.1 Threat: Invasive plants 557
10.1.1 Parrot’s feather Myriophyllum aquaticum 557
Chemical control using the herbicide 2,4-D 558
Chemical control using the herbicide carfentrazone-ethyl 558
Chemical control using the herbicide triclopyr 558
Chemical control using the herbicide diquat 558
Chemical control using the herbicide endohall 559
Chemical control using other herbicides 559
Reduction of trade through legislation and codes of conduct 559
Biological control using herbivores 560
Biological control using plant pathogens 560
Mechanical harvesting or cutting 560
Suction dredging and diver-assisted suction removal 561
Manual harvesting (hand-weeding) 561
Use of lightproof barriers 561
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides 561
Decontamination / preventing further spread 561
Multiple integrated measures 561
10.1.2 Floating pennywort Hydrocotyle ranunculoides 561
Chemical control using herbicides 562
Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal 562
Biological control using co-evolved, host-specific herbivores 563
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides 563
Biological control using native herbivores 563
Environmental control (e.g. shading, reduced flow, reduction of rooting depth, or dredging) 563
10.1.3 Water primrose Ludwigia spp 563
Biological control using co-evolved, host specific herbivores 564
Chemical control using herbicides 564
Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal 565
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides 565
Biological control using native herbivores 565
Environmental control (e.g. shading, reduced flow, reduction of rooting depth, or dredging) 565
Use of mats placed on the bottom of the waterbody 565
10.1.4 Skunk cabbage Lysichiton americanus 566
Chemical control using herbicides 566
Biological control using co-evolved, host-specific herbivores 567
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides 567
Biological control using native herbivores 567
Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal 567
Environmental control (e.g. shading, or promotion of native plants) 567
10.1.5 New Zealand pigmyweed Crassula helmsii 567
Chemical control using herbicides 568
Decontamination to prevent further spread 568
Use lightproof barriers to control plants 569
Use salt water to kill plants 569
Use a combination of control methods 569
Use dyes to reduce light levels 569
Use grazing to control plants 569
Use hot foam to control plants 570
Use hydrogen peroxide to control plants 570
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides 570
Biological control using herbivores 570
Physical control using manual/mechanical control or dredging 570
Plant other species to suppress growth 570
10.2 Threat: Invasive molluscs 571
Add chemicals to the water 571
Change temperature of water 572
Use of gas-impermeable barriers 573
Drain the invaded waterbody 573
Exposure to disease-causing organisms 573
Public awareness and education. 573
10.3 Threat: Invasive crustaceans 574
10.3.1 Ponto-Caspian gammarids 574
Change salinity of the water 574
Dewatering (drying out) habitat 575
Control movement of gammarids 576
Biological control using predatory fish 576
Exposure to disease-causing organisms 576
10.3.2 Procambarus spp. crayfish 576
Add chemicals to the water 577
Trapping combined with encouragement of predators 577
Relocate vulnerable crayfish 578
Remove the crayfish by electrofishing 578
10.4 Threat: Invasive fish 579
10.4.1 Brown and black bullheads 579
Biological control of beneficial species 580
Biological control using native predators 580
Draining invaded waterbodies 580
Increasing carbon dioxide concentrations 580
Trapping using sound or pheromonal lures 580
Using a combination of netting and electrofishing 580
10.4.2 Ponto-Caspian gobies 581
Use of barriers to prevent migration 582
Biological control of beneficial species 582
Biological control using native predators 582
Draining invaded waterbodies 582
Increasing carbon dioxide concentrations 582
Trapping using visual, sound and pheromonal lures 582
Using a combination of netting and electrofishing 582
10.5 Threat: Invasive reptiles 583
10.5.1 Red-eared terrapin Trachemys scripta 583
Biological control using native predators 584
Draining invaded waterbodies 584
Search and removal using sniffer dogs 584
10.6 Threat: Invasive amphibians 585
10.6.1 American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeiana 585
Biological control using native predators 585
Direct removal of juveniles 586
Biological control of co-occurring beneficial species 587
Collection of egg clutches 587
11. SOME ASPECTS OF ENHANCING NATURAL PEST CONTROL 589
11.1 Reducing agricultural pollution 591
Alter the timing of insecticide use 591
Incorporate parasitism rates when setting thresholds for insecticide use 593
Use pesticides only when pests or crop damage reach threshold levels 593
Convert to organic farming 594
Grow non-crop plants that produce chemicals that attract natural enemies 596
Use chemicals to attract natural enemies 597
Leave part of the crop or pasture unharvested or uncut 598
Use mass-emergence devices to increase natural enemy populations 600
Combine trap and repellent crops in a push-pull system 601
Use crop rotation in potato farming systems 602
Incorporate plant remains into the soil that produce weed-controlling chemicals 604
Exclude ants that protect pests 606
Allow natural regeneration of ground cover beneath perennial crops 607
Isolate colonies of beneficial ants 608
11.5 Livestock farming and pasture 609
Grow plants that compete with damaging weeds 609
Delay mowing or first grazing date on pasture or grassland 610
Use grazing instead of cutting for pasture or grassland management 611
12. ENHANCING SOIL FERTILITY 613
12.1 Reducing agricultural pollution 615
Change the timing of manure application 615
Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally 616
Control traffic and traffic timing 617
Convert to organic farming 620
Change the timing of ploughing 621
Amend the soil using a mix of organic and inorganic amendments 623
Grow cover crops when the field is empty 623
Amend the soil with formulated chemical compounds 625
Grow cover crops beneath the main crop (living mulches) or between crop rows 626
Amend the soil with fresh plant material or crop remains 627
Amend the soil with manures and agricultural composts 628
Amend the soil with municipal wastes or their composts 629
Incorporate leys into crop rotation 629
Amend the soil with bacteria or fungi 630
Amend the soil with composts not otherwise specified 630
Amend the soil with crops grown as green manures 631
Amend the soil with non-chemical minerals and mineral wastes 631
Amend the soil with organic processing wastes or their composts 631
Encourage foraging waterfowl 632
12.4 Livestock and pasture farming 633
Restore or create low input grasslands 634
13. SUBTIDAL BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION 635
13.1 Threat: Energy production and mining 637
13.1.1 Oil and gas drilling 637
Bury drill cuttings in the seabed rather than leaving them on the seabed surface 637
Cease or prohibit oil and gas drilling 637
Cease or prohibit the deposit of drill cuttings on the seabed 637
Dispose of drill cuttings on land rather than on the seabed 638
Limit the thickness of drill cuttings 638
Recycle or repurpose fluids used in the drilling process 638
Remove drill cuttings after decommissioning 638
Set limits for change in sediment particle size during aggregate extraction 638
Use water-based muds instead of oil-based muds (drilling fluids) in the drilling process 638
Bury pipelines instead of surface laying and rock dumping 638
Leave pipelines and infrastructure in place following decommissioning 638
Limit the amount of stabilisation material used 638
Remove pipelines and infrastructure following decommissioning 638
Set limits for change in sediment particle size during rock dumping 638
Use stabilisation material that can be more easily recovered at decommissioning stage 638
13.1.3 Mining, quarrying, and aggregate extraction 639
Cease or prohibit aggregate extraction 639
Cease or prohibit marine mining 640
Extract aggregates from a vessel that is moving rather than static 641
Leave mining waste (tailings) in place following cessation of disposal operations 641
Cease or prohibit mining waste (tailings) disposal at sea 642
Limit, cease, or prohibit sediment discard during aggregate extraction 642
Remove discarded sediment material from the seabed following cessation of aggregate extraction 642
13.2 Threat: Transportation and service corridors 644
13.2.1 Utility and service lines 644
Bury cables and pipelines in the seabed rather than laying them on the seabed 644
Leave utility and service lines in place after decommissioning 644
Remove utility and service lines after decommissioning 644
Set limits on the area that can be covered by utility and service lines at one location 644
Use a different technique when laying and burying cables and pipelines 645
Use cables and pipelines of smaller width 645
Cease or prohibit shipping 645
Limit, cease or prohibit anchoring from ships/boats/vessels 646
Limit, cease or prohibit recreational boating 646
Periodically move and relocate moorings 646
Provide additional moorings to reduce anchoring 646
Reduce ships/boats/vessels speed limits 646
Use a different type of anchor 646
Use moorings which reduce or avoid contact with the seabed (eco- moorings) 646
13.3 Threat: Biological resource use 647
13.3.1 Spatial and Temporal Management 647
Cease or prohibit all towed (mobile) fishing gear 647
Cease or prohibit all types of fishing 649
Cease or prohibit bottom trawling 650
Cease or prohibit dredging 650
Cease or prohibit commercial fishing 651
Establish temporary fisheries closures 652
Cease or prohibit midwater/semi-pelagic trawling 654
Cease or prohibit static fishing gear 654
13.3.2 Effort and Capacity Reduction 654
Establish territorial user rights for fisheries 654
Install physical barriers to prevent trawling 655
Eliminate fisheries subsidies that encourage overfishing 655
Limit the density of traps 655
Limit the number of fishing days 656
Limit the number of fishing vessels 656
Limit the number of traps per fishing vessels 656
Purchase fishing permits and/or vessels from fishers 656
Set commercial catch quotas 656
Set commercial catch quotas and habitat credits systems 656
Set habitat credits systems 656
13.3.3 Reduce Unwanted catch, Discards and Impacts on seabed communities 656
Fit one or more mesh escape panels/windows to trawl nets 658
Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames to trawl nets 659
Modify the design of dredges 659
Modify the position of traps 660
Use a larger codend mesh size on trawl nets 661
Use a midwater/semi-pelagic trawl instead of bottom/demersal trawl 661
Fit a funnel (such as a sievenet) or other escape devices on shrimp/prawn trawl nets 662
Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames on pots and traps 664
Hand harvest instead of using a dredge 665
Increase the mesh size of pots and traps 665
Modify the design of traps 666
Modify the design/attachments of a shrimp/prawn W-trawl net 666
Reduce the number or modify the arrangement of tickler chains/chain mats on trawl nets 667
Use a larger mesh size on trammel nets 667
Use a pulse trawl instead of a beam trawl 668
Use a square mesh instead of a diamond mesh codend on trawl nets 669
Use an otter trawl instead of a beam trawl 669
Use an otter trawl instead of a dredge 669
Use different bait species in traps 670
Use traps instead of fishing nets 670
Fit one or more mesh escape panels/windows on pots and traps 671
Limit the maximum weight and/or size of bobbins on the footrope 671
Modify harvest methods of macroalgae 671
Modify trawl doors to reduce sediment penetration 671
Outfit trawls with a raised footrope 671
Release live unwanted catch first before handling commercial species 671
Use alternative means of getting mussel seeds rather than dredging from natural mussel beds 671
Use hook and line fishing instead of other fishing methods 671
Use lower water pressure during hydraulic dredging 671
Use more than one net on otter trawls 671
13.4 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbances 672
13.4.1 Recreational Activities 672
Limit, cease or prohibit access for recreational purposes 672
Limit, cease or prohibit recreational diving 672
Limit, cease or prohibit recreational fishing and/or harvesting 672
13.5 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species, genes and diseases 673
Implement quarantine to avoid accidental introduction of disease, non-native or problem species 674
Prevent the attachment of biofouling organisms/species in aquaculture 674
Reduce and/or eradicate aquaculture escapees in the wild 674
Remove biofouling organisms/species in aquaculture 674
Use native species instead of non-native species in aquaculture systems 674
Use sterile individuals in aquaculture systems using non-native species 674
13.5.2 Shipping, transportation and anthropogenic structures 674
Clean anthropogenic platforms, structures or equipment 675
Clean the hull, anchor and chain of commercial and recreational vessels 675
Limit, cease or prohibit ballast water exchange in specific areas 675
Treat ballast water before exchange 675
Use antifouling coatings on the surfaces of vessels and anthropogenic structures 675
Remove or capture non-native, invasive or other problematic species 675
Limit, cease or prohibit the sale and/or transportation of commercial non-native species 676
Use biocides or other chemicals to control non-native, invasive or other problematic species 676
Use biological control to manage non-native, invasive or other problematic species populations 676
Add chemicals or minerals to sediments to remove or neutralise pollutants 677
Establish pollution emergency plans 678
Transplant/translocate ‘bioremediating’ species 678
13.6.2 Domestic and urban wastewater 678
Limit, cease or prohibit the dumping of sewage sludge 678
Set or improve minimum sewage treatment standards 679
Limit the amount of storm wastewater overflow 680
Limit, cease or prohibit the dumping of untreated sewage 680
13.6.3 Industrial and military effluents 680
Remove or clean-up oil pollution following a spill 680
Set regulatory ban on marine burial of nuclear waste 681
Use double hulls to prevent oil spills 681
13.6.4 Aquaculture effluents 681
Cease or prohibit aquaculture activity 682
Leave a fallow period during fish/shellfish farming 682
Improve fish food and pellets to reduce aquaculture waste production 683
Locate aquaculture systems in areas with fast currents 683
Locate aquaculture systems in already impacted areas 683
Locate aquaculture systems in vegetated areas 683
Locate artificial reefs near aquaculture systems (and vice versa) to act as biofilters 683
Moor aquaculture cages so they move in response to changing current direction 683
Reduce aquaculture stocking densities 683
Reduce the amount of antibiotics used in aquaculture systems 683
Reduce the amount of pesticides used in aquaculture systems 683
Use other bioremediation methods in aquaculture 683
Use species from more than one level of a food web in aquaculture systems 683
13.6.5 Agricultural and forestry effluents 684
Create artificial wetlands to reduce the amount of pollutants reaching the sea 684
Establish aquaculture to extract the nutrients from run-offs 684
Regulate the use, dosage and disposal of agrichemicals 684
Treat wastewater from intensive livestock holdings 684
13.6.6 Garbage and solid waste 684
Bury electricity cables to reduce electromagnetic fields 685
Install stormwater traps or grids 685
Limit, cease or prohibit discharge of solid waste overboard from vessels 685
Remove litter from the marine environment 685
Use biodegradable panels in fishing pots 685
Limit, cease or prohibit industrial and urban lighting at night 685
Limit, cease or prohibit the discharge of cooling effluents from power stations 685
Limit, cease or prohibit the use of sonars 685
Reduce underwater noise (other than sonar) 685
Restrict the use of tributyltin or other toxic antifouling coatings 686
Remove and clean-up shoreline waste disposal sites 687
Limit, cease or prohibit the discharge of waste effluents overboard from vessels 687
Use non-toxic antifouling coatings on surfaces 687
13.7 Threat: Climate change and severe weather 688
Manage climate-driven range extensions of problematic species 689
Promote natural carbon sequestration species and/or habitats 689
Restore habitats and/or habitat-forming (biogenic) species following extreme events 689
Designate a Marine Protected Area and introduce some fishing restrictions (types unspecified) 691
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit all types of fishing 692
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit the harvesting of sea urchins 696
Designate a Marine Protected Area with a zonation system of activity restrictions 696
Designate a Marine Protected Area and install physical barriers to prevent trawling 699
Designate a Marine Protected Area and only allow hook and line fishing 699
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit all towed (mobile) fishing gear 700
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit aquaculture activity 701
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit bottom trawling 701
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit commercial fishing 702
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit dredging 703
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit the harvesting of conch 704
Establish community-based fisheries management 704
Designate a Marine Protected Area and limit the density of traps 705
Designate a Marine Protected Area and limit the number of fishing vessels 705
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit static fishing gear 705
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit the harvesting of scallops 705
Designate a Marine Protected Area and set a no-anchoring zone 705
Designate a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA) to regulate impactful maritime activities 705
Engage with stakeholders when designing Marine Protected Areas 705
13.9 Habitat restoration and creation 706
13.9.1 Natural habitat restoration 706
Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore oyster reefs 707
Translocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species - Translocate reef-forming corals 709
Refill disused borrow pits 710
Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore mussel beds 711
Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore seagrass beds/meadows 711
Translocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species - Translocate reef- or bed-forming molluscs 713
Transplant captive-bred or hatchery-reared habitat-forming (biogenic) species 714
13.9.2 Habitat enhancement 714
Provide artificial shelters 715
Landscape or artificially enhance the seabed (natural habitats) 715
13.9.3 Artificial habitat creation 717
Create artificial reefs of different 3-D structure and material used 719
Locate artificial reefs near aquaculture systems to benefit from nutrient run-offs 720
Repurpose obsolete offshore structures to act as artificial reefs 721
13.9.4 Other habitat restoration and creation interventions 721
Offset habitat loss from human activity by restoring or creating habitats elsewhere 722
Remove and relocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species before onset of impactful activities 722
Pay monetary compensation for habitat damage remediation 723
Translocate species - Translocate molluscs 725
Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species - Transplant/release crustaceans 726
Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species - Transplant/release molluscs 727
Cease or prohibit the harvesting of scallops 728
Tag species to prevent illegal fishing or harvesting 728
Translocate species - Translocate crustaceans 729
Translocate species - Translocate worms 729
Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species in predator exclusion cages 730
Cease or prohibit the harvest of conch 730
Cease or prohibit the harvest of sea urchins 730
Establish size limitations for the capture of recreational species 730
Provide artificial shelters following release 730
Remove and relocate invertebrate species before onset of impactful activities 730
Set recreational catch quotas 730
13.11 Education and awareness 731
Organise educational marine wildlife tours to improve behaviours towards marine invertebrates 732