Who is What Works in Conservation for?
The Conservation Evidence project
Which conservation interventions are included?
What does What Works in Conservation include?
Expert assessment of the evidence
Categorization of interventions
How to use What Works in Conservation
1.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development
Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites
Restrict herbicide, fungicide and pesticide use on and around ponds on golf courses
1.2.1 Engage farmers and other volunteers
Engage landowners and other volunteers to manage land for amphibians
Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
1.2.2 Terrestrial habitat management
Manage silviculture practices in plantations
1.2.3 Aquatic habitat management
Exclude domestic animals or wild hogs from ponds by fencing
1.3 Threat: Energy production and mining
Artificially mist habitat to keep it damp
1.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors
Close roads during seasonal amphibian migration
Install barrier fencing along roads
Install culverts or tunnels as road crossings
Use humans to assist migrating amphibians across roads
1.5 Threat: Biological resource use
1.5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals
Reduce impact of amphibian trade
Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
Commercially breed amphibians for the pet trade
1.5.2 Logging and wood harvesting
Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest
Use shelterwood harvesting instead of clearcutting
Leave coarse woody debris in forests
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests
Use leave-tree harvesting instead of clearcutting
Harvest groups of trees instead of clearcutting
1.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance
Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance
1.7 Threat: Natural system modifications
Mechanically remove mid-storey or ground vegetation
Use herbicides to control mid-storey or ground vegetation
Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (forests)
Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (grassland)
1.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species
1.8.1 Reduce predation by other species
Remove or control fish by drying out ponds
Remove or control fish population by catching
Remove or control invasive bullfrogs
Remove or control invasive viperine snake
Remove or control fish using Rotenone
Encourage aquatic plant growth as refuge against fish predation
Remove or control non-native crayfish
1.8.2 Reduce competition with other species
Reduce competition from native amphibians
Remove or control invasive Cuban tree frogs
Remove or control invasive cane toads
1.8.3 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
Prevent heavy usage/exclude wildfowl from aquatic habitat
1.8.4 Reduce parasitism and disease – chytridiomycosis
Use temperature treatment to reduce infection
Use antifungal treatment to reduce infection
Immunize amphibians against infection
Remove the chytrid fungus from ponds
Sterilize equipment when moving between amphibian sites
Treating amphibians in the wild or pre-release
Use gloves to handle amphibians
Use antibacterial treatment to reduce infection
Use antifungal skin bacteria or peptides to reduce infection
Use zooplankton to remove zoospores
1.8.5 Reduce parasitism and disease – ranaviruses
Sterilize equipment to prevent ranaviruses
Create walls or barriers to exclude pollutants
Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use
Prevent pollution from agricultural lands or sewage treatment facilities entering watercourses
Add limestone to water bodies to reduce acidification
Augment ponds with ground water to reduce acidification
1.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather
Create microclimate and microhabitat refuges
Deepen ponds to prevent desiccation
Use irrigation systems for amphibian sites
Artificially shade ponds to prevent desiccation
Protect habitat along elevational gradients
Retain buffer zones around core habitat
Protect habitats for amphibians
Retain connectivity between habitat patches
1.12 Habitat restoration and creation
Create artificial hibernacula or aestivation sites
Create ponds (amphibians in general)
Create ponds (natterjack toads)
Create ponds (salamanders including newts)
Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds
Create ponds (great crested newts)
Remove specific aquatic plants
Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading
Add nutrients to new ponds as larvae food source
Add specific plants to aquatic habitats
Create refuge areas in aquatic habitats
Translocate amphibians (amphibians in general)
Translocate amphibians (great crested newts)
Translocate amphibians (natterjack toads)
Translocate amphibians (salamanders including newts)
Translocate amphibians (toads)
Translocate amphibians (wood frogs)
Translocate amphibians (frogs)
1.13.2 Captive breeding, rearing and releases
Release captive-bred individuals (amphibians in general)
Release captive-bred individuals (frogs)
Breed amphibians in captivity (frogs)
Breed amphibians in captivity (harlequin toads)
Breed amphibians in captivity (Mallorcan midwife toad)
Breed amphibians in captivity (salamanders including newts)
Breed amphibians in captivity (toads)
Head-start amphibians for release
Release captive-bred individuals (Mallorcan midwife toad)
Release captive-bred individuals (toads)
Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding
Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release
Release captive-bred individuals (salamanders including newts)
Freeze sperm or eggs for future use
Release captive-bred individuals (green and golden bell frogs)
1.14 Education and awareness raising
Engage volunteers to collect amphibian data (citizen science)
Provide education programmes about amphibians
Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information
2. BAT CONSERVATION (2019 Update)
2.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development
Create alternative bat roosts within developments
Retain existing bat roosts and access points within developments
Relocate access points to bat roosts within developments
Change timing of building work
Exclude bats from roosts during building work
Create or restore bat foraging habitat in urban areas
Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites
Legally protect bats during development
Encourage homeowners to plant gardens with night-scented flowers
Encourage homeowners to increase semi-natural habitat within gardens
Protect greenfield sites or undeveloped land in urban areas
Use organic farming instead of conventional farming
Retain remnant forest or woodland on agricultural land
Retain or plant native trees and shrubs amongst crops (agroforestry)
Introduce agri-environment schemes
Engage farmers and landowners to manage land for bats
Retain existing in-field trees
Create tree plantations on agricultural land to provide roosting and foraging habitat for bats
Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland
Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)
Plant field margins with a diverse mix of plant species
Manage ditches to benefit bats
Remove livestock modifications from water troughs
Avoid the use of antiparasitic drugs for livestock
Manage grazing regimes to increase invertebrate prey
2.2.3 Perennial, non-timber crops
Prevent culling of bats around fruit orchards
Replace netting with non-lethal measures to prevent bats from accessing fruit in orchards
Introduce certification for bat-friendly crop harvesting regimes
2.3 Threat: Energy production — mining
Deter bats from turbines using ultrasound
Prevent turbine blades from turning at low wind speeds to reduce bat fatalities
Automatically reduce turbine blade rotation when bat activity is high
Apply textured coating to turbines
Deter bats from turbines using radar
Deter bats from turbines using low-level ultraviolet light
Remove turbine lighting to reduce bat and insect attraction
Paint turbines to reduce insect attraction
Close off potential access points on turbines to prevent roosting bats
Modify turbine placement to reduce bat fatalities
Retain a buffer between turbines and habitat features used by bats
Install and maintain gates at mine entrances to restrict public access
Maintain microclimate in closed/abandoned mines
Provide artificial subterranean bat roosts to replace roosts in reclaimed mines
Exclude bats from roosts prior to mine reclamation
Relocate bats from reclaimed mines to alternative subterranean roost sites
Retain access points for bats following mine closures
Reopen entrances to closed mines and make suitable for roosting bats
2.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors
Install underpasses as road crossing structures for bats
Install overpasses as road crossing structures for bats
Install green bridges as road crossing structures for bats
Divert bats to safe crossing points with plantings or fencing
Maintain bat roosts in road bridges and culverts
Install bat gantries or bat bridges as road crossing structures for bats
Install hop-overs as road crossing structures for bats
Create spaces for roosting bats in road bridges and culverts
Deter bats from roads using lighting
Deter bats from roads using ultrasound
Minimize road lighting to reduce insect attraction
Avoid planting fruit trees alongside roads in areas with fruit bats
Replace or improve habitat for bats around roads
2.5 Threat: Biological resource use
Introduce and enforce legislation to control hunting of bats
Enforce regulations to prevent trafficking and trade of bats
Strengthen cultural traditions that discourage bat harvesting
Inform local communities about the negative impacts of bat hunting to reduce killing of bats
Introduce alternative treatments to reduce the use of bats in traditional medicine
Introduce other food sources to replace bat meat
Introduce other income sources to replace bat trade
Encourage online vendors to remove bat specimens for sale
Restrict the collection of bat specimens for research
Introduce and enforce legislation to regulate the harvesting of bat guano
2.5.3 Logging and wood harvesting
Retain forested corridors in logged areas
Use selective or reduced impact logging instead of conventional logging
Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
Retain residual tree patches in logged areas
Retain riparian buffers in logged areas
Train arborists and forestry operatives to identify potential bat roosts
Protect roost trees during forest operations
Retain buffers around roost trees in logged areas
Change timing of forestry operations
Maintain forest and woodland edges for foraging bats
Manage forest and woodland to encourage understorey growth
Replant native trees in logged areas
Encourage natural regeneration in former plantations
Strengthen cultural traditions such as sacred groves that prevent timber harvesting
2.6 Threat: Human disturbance — caving and tourism
Impose restrictions on cave visits
Install and maintain cave gates to restrict public access
Install fencing around cave entrances to restrict public access
Restrict artificial lighting in caves and around cave entrances
Minimize noise levels within caves
Retain bat access points to caves
Inform the public of ways to reduce disturbance to bats in caves
Train tourist guides to minimize disturbance and promote bat conservation
Minimize alterations to caves for tourism
Introduce guidelines for sustainable cave development and use
Provide artificial subterranean bat roosts to replace roosts in disturbed caves
Restore and maintain microclimate in modified caves
2.7 Threat: Natural system modification
2.7.1 Fire and fire suppression
2.7.2 Dams and water management/use
Create or maintain small dams to provide foraging and drinking habitat for bats
Relocate bat colonies roosting inside dams
2.8 Threat: Invasive species and disease
Control invasive plant species
Control invasive non-predatory competitors
Control harmful invasive bat prey species
Exclude domestic and feral cats from bat roosts and roost entrances
Keep domestic cats indoors at night
Use collar-mounted devices on cats to reduce predation of bats
Carry out surveillance of bats for early treatment/action to reduce disease/viruses
Modify bat hibernacula environments to increase bat survival
Treat bats for infection with white-nose syndrome
Restrict human access to bat caves to prevent spread of disease
Decontaminate clothing and equipment after entering caves
Treat bat hibernacula environments to reduce pathogen reservoir
Vaccinate bats against the white-nose syndrome pathogen
Breed bats in captivity to supplement wild populations affected by white-nose syndrome
2.9.1 Domestic and urban waste water
Change effluent treatments of domestic and urban waste water
Prevent pollution from sewage treatment facilities from entering watercourse
Reduce or prevent the use of septic systems near caves
2.9.2 Agricultural and forestry effluents
Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertiliser use
Introduce or enforce legislation to prevent ponds and streams from being contaminated by toxins
Change effluent treatments used in agriculture and forestry
Introduce legislation to control the use of hazardous substances
Use organic pest control instead of synthetic pesticides
Prevent pollution from agricultural land or forestry from entering watercourses
Leave bat roosts, roost entrances and commuting routes unlit
Avoid illumination of bat commuting routes
Avoid illumination of key bat habitats
Use red lighting rather than other lighting colours
Direct lighting away from bat access points or habitats
Use ‘warm white’ rather than ‘cool’ LED lights
Use glazing treatments to reduce light spill from inside lit buildings
Impose noise limits in proximity to roosts and bat habitats
Install sound barriers in proximity to bat roosts and habitats
Use mammal safe timber treatments in roof spaces
2.10 Climate change and severe weather
Adapt bat roost structures to buffer against temperature extremes
Enhance natural habitat features to improve landscape connectivity to allow for range shifts of bats
Provide suitable bat foraging and roosting habitat at expanding range fronts
Manage natural water bodies in arid areas to prevent desiccation
Conserve roosting sites for bats in old structures or buildings
Retain veteran and standing dead trees as roosting sites for bats
Retain existing bat commuting routes
Retain remnant habitat patches
Retain connectivity between habitat patches
Retain native forest and woodland
2.12 Habitat restoration and creation
Create artificial water sources
Create artificial hollows and cracks in trees for roosting bats
Conserve roosting sites for bats in old structures or buildings
Reinstate bat roosts in felled tree trunks
Create artificial caves or hibernacula for bats
Restore or create forest or woodland
Restore or create linear habitat features/green corridors
Provide bat boxes for roosting bats
Manage microclimate of artificial bat roosts
Rehabilitate injured/orphaned bats to maintain wild bat populations
2.14 Education and awareness raising
Educate the public to improve perception of bats to improve behaviour towards bats
Engage policymakers to make policy changes beneficial to bats
Promote careful bat-related eco-tourism to improve behaviour towards bats
Legally protect habitats for birds
Provide or retain un-harvested buffer strips
Ensure connectivity between habitat patches
3.2 Education and awareness raising
Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information
Provide bird feeding materials to families with young children
Enhance bird taxonomy skills through higher education and training
Provide training to conservationists and land managers on bird ecology and conservation
3.3 Threat: Residential and commercial development
Angle windows to reduce bird collisions
Mark windows to reduce bird collisions
Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
Provide (or retain) set-aside areas in farmland
Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
Increase the proportion of natural/semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
Leave refuges in fields during harvest
Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using bird scarers)
Relocate nests at harvest time to reduce nestling mortality
Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
Offer per clutch payment for farmland birds
Manage hedges to benefit wildlife
Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using repellents)
Take field corners out of management
Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
Cross compliance standards for all subsidy payments
Food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming
Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit birds
Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)
Support or maintain low-intensity agricultural systems
Create ‘skylark plots’ (undrilled patches in cereal fields)
Leave uncropped cultivated margins or fallow land (includes lapwing and stone curlew plots)
Sow crops in spring rather than autumn
Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
Increase crop diversity to benefit birds
Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
Revert arable land to permanent grassland
Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings
Leave unharvested cereal headlands within arable fields
Delay mowing date on grasslands
Leave uncut rye grass in silage fields
Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
Maintain traditional water meadows
Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality
Plant cereals for whole crop silage
Reduce management intensity of permanent grasslands
Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat
Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
Protect nests from livestock to reduce trampling
Provide short grass for waders
Raise mowing height on grasslands
Use traditional breeds of livestock
Maintain wood pasture and parkland
3.4.4 Perennial, non-timber crops
Manage perennial bioenergy crops to benefit wildlife
Deter birds from landing on shellfish culture gear
Provide refuges for fish within ponds
Use electric fencing to exclude fish-eating birds
Use ‘mussel socks’ to prevent birds from attacking shellfish
Use netting to exclude fish-eating birds
Increase water turbidity to reduce fish predation by birds
Translocate birds away from fish farms
Use in-water devices to reduce fish loss from ponds
Disturb birds using foot patrols
Spray water to deter birds from ponds
3.5 Threat: Energy production and mining
Paint wind turbines to increase their visibility
3.6 Threat: Transportation and service corridors
Scare or otherwise deter birds from airports
3.6.2 Power lines and electricity pylons
Remove earth wires from power lines
Use perch-deterrents to stop raptors perching on pylons
Add perches to electricity pylons
Reduce electrocutions by using plastic, not metal, leg rings to mark birds
Use raptor models to deter birds from power lines
3.7 Threat: Biological resource use
3.7.1 Reducing exploitation and conflict
Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting disturbance
Employ local people as ‘biomonitors’
Increase ‘on-the-ground’ protection to reduce unsustainable levels of exploitation
Introduce voluntary ‘maximum shoot distances’
Mark eggs to reduce their appeal to collectors
Move fish-eating birds to reduce conflict with fishermen
Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods
Provide ‘sacrificial grasslands’ to reduce conflict with farmers
Relocate nestlings to reduce poaching
Use education programmes and local engagement to help reduce persecution or exploitation of species
Use alerts during shoots to reduce mortality of non-target species
3.7.2 Reducing fisheries bycatch
Use streamer lines to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines
Mark trawler warp cables to reduce seabird collisions
Reduce seabird bycatch by releasing offal overboard when setting longlines
Weight baits or lines to reduce longline bycatch of seabirds
Set lines underwater to reduce seabird bycatch
Set longlines at night to reduce seabird bycatch
Dye baits to reduce seabird bycatch
Thaw bait before setting lines to reduce seabird bycatch
Turn deck lights off during night-time setting of longlines to reduce bycatch
Use a sonic scarer when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch
Use acoustic alerts on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
Use bait throwers to reduce seabird bycatch
Use high visibility mesh on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
Use shark liver oil to deter birds when setting lines
Use a line shooter to reduce seabird bycatch
Reduce bycatch through seasonal or area closures
Reduce ‘ghost fishing’ by lost/discarded gear
Reduce gillnet deployment time to reduce seabird bycatch
Set longlines at the side of the boat to reduce seabird bycatch
Tow buoys behind longlining boats to reduce seabird bycatch
Use a water cannon when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch
Use high-visibility longlines to reduce seabird bycatch
Use larger hooks to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines
3.8 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance
Provide paths to limit disturbance
Start educational programmes for personal watercraft owners
Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance at nest sites
Use voluntary agreements with local people to reduce disturbance
Habituate birds to human visitors
Use nest covers to reduce the impact of research on predation of ground-nesting seabirds
Set minimum distances for approaching birds (buffer zones)
3.9 Threat: Natural system modifications
Create scrapes and pools in wetlands and wet grasslands
Provide deadwood/snags in forests (use ring-barking, cutting or silvicides)
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
Clear or open patches in forests
Employ grazing in artificial grasslands/pastures
Employ grazing in natural grasslands
Employ grazing in non-grassland habitats
Manage water level in wetlands
Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
Use prescribed burning (grasslands)
Use prescribed burning (pine forests)
Use prescribed burning (savannahs)
Use prescribed burning (shrublands)
Use selective harvesting/logging instead of clearcutting
Manage woodland edges for birds
Plant trees to act as windbreaks
Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests)
Remove coarse woody debris from forests
Replace non-native species of tree/shrub
Use environmentally sensitive flood management
Use greentree reservoir management
Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest)
Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
Use variable retention management during forestry operations
Apply herbicide to mid- and understorey vegetation
Treat wetlands with herbicides
Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats)
Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests)
Protect nest trees before burning
3.10 Habitat restoration and creation
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands)
Restore or create traditional water meadows
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands)
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests)
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons)
3.11 Threat: Invasive alien and other problematic species
3.11.1 Reduce predation by other species
Control mammalian predators on islands
Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities
Control avian predators on islands
Control invasive ants on islands
Reduce predation by translocating predators
Control predators not on islands
3.11.2 Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control
Distribute poison bait using dispensers
Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control
Do birds take bait designed for pest control?
3.11.3 Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas
Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing
Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks
Protect bird nests using electric fencing
Use artificial nests that discourage predation
Guard nests to prevent predation
Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation
Use multiple barriers to protect nests
Use naphthalene to deter mammalian predators
Use snakeskin to deter mammalian nest predators
Play spoken-word radio programmes to deter predators
Use ‘cat curfews’ to reduce predation
Use lion dung to deter domestic cats
Use mirrors to deter nest predators
Use ultrasonic devices to deter cats
Can nest protection increase nest abandonment?
Can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks?
3.11.4 Reduce mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behaviour
Reduce predation by translocating nest boxes
Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation
Use supplementary feeding to reduce predation
Use aversive conditioning to reduce nest predation
3.11.5 Reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites
Reduce inter-specific competition for food by removing or controlling competitor species
Protect nest sites from competitors
Reduce competition between species by providing nest boxes
Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by modifying habitats to exclude competitor species
Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (songbirds)
Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (woodpeckers)
3.11.6 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
Control or remove habitat-altering mammals
Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (terrestrial species)
Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (aquatic species)
Use buffer zones to reduce the impact of invasive plant control
3.11.7 Reduce parasitism and disease
Remove/control adult brood parasites
Remove/treat endoparasites and diseases
Alter artificial nest sites to discourage brood parasitism
Exclude or control ‘reservoir species’ to reduce parasite burdens
Remove brood parasite eggs from target species’ nests
Use false brood parasite eggs to discourage brood parasitism
3.11.8 Reduce detrimental impacts of other problematic species
Use copper strips to exclude snails from nests
Use visual and acoustic ‘scarers’ to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining or sewage
Relocate birds following oil spills
Use repellents to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining
Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
Provide food for vultures to reduce mortality from diclofenac
Reduce pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use generally
Reduce chemical inputs in permanent grassland management
Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals
Make selective use of spring herbicides
Provide buffer strips along rivers and streams
Provide unfertilised cereal headlands in arable fields
Use buffer strips around in-field ponds
Use organic rather than mineral fertilisers
Use lime to reduce acidification in lakes
Shield lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
Turning off lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
Use flashing lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
Use lights low in spectral red to reduce mortality from artificial lights
Reduce the intensity of lighthouse beams
Using volunteers to collect and rehabilitate downed birds
3.13 Threat: Climate change, extreme weather and geological events
Replace nesting habitats when they are washed away by storms
Water nesting mounds to increase incubation success in malleefowl
3.14 General responses to small/declining populations
3.14.1 Inducing breeding, rehabilitation and egg removal
Remove eggs from wild nests to increase reproductive output
Use artificial visual and auditory stimuli to induce breeding in wild populations
3.14.2 Provide artificial nesting sites
Provide artificial nests (falcons)
Provide artificial nests (owls)
Provide artificial nests (songbirds)
Provide artificial nests (wildfowl)
Clean artificial nests to increase occupancy or reproductive success
Provide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds)
Provide artificial nests (divers/loons)
Provide artificial nests (ground- and tree-nesting seabirds)
Provide artificial nests (oilbirds)
Provide artificial nests (raptors)
Provide artificial nests (wildfowl — artificial/floating islands)
Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests
Provide artificial nests (gamebirds)
Provide artificial nests (grebes)
Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos)
Provide artificial nests (parrots)
Provide artificial nests (pigeons)
Provide artificial nests (rails)
Provide artificial nests (rollers)
Provide artificial nests (swifts)
Provide artificial nests (trogons)
Provide artificial nests (waders)
Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers)
Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather
Provide nesting material for wild birds
Remove vegetation to create nesting areas
Repair/support nests to support breeding
Use differently-coloured artificial nests
3.14.3 Foster chicks in the wild
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (raptors)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (songbirds)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (bustards)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (cranes)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (gannets and boobies)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (owls)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (parrots)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (vultures)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (waders)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (woodpeckers)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (cranes)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (ibises)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (petrels and shearwaters)
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (waders)
3.14.4 Provide supplementary food
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (songbirds)
Place feeders close to windows to reduce collisions
Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (cranes)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gulls, terns and skuas)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (owls)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (raptors)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (songbirds)
Provide perches to improve foraging success
Provide supplementary food through the establishment of food populations
Provide supplementary food to allow the rescue of a second chick
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gamebirds)
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gulls, terns and skuas)
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (hummingbirds)
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (nectar-feeding songbirds)
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (pigeons)
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (raptors)
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (vultures)
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (waders)
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (wildfowl)
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (woodpeckers)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (auks)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gamebirds)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gannets and boobies)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (ibises)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (kingfishers)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (parrots)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (petrels)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (pigeons)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (rails and coots)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (vultures)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (waders)
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (wildfowl)
Provide supplementary water to increase survival or reproductive success
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (birds in general)
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (raptors)
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (parrots)
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (pelicans)
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (rails)
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (songbirds)
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (wildfowl)
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (woodpeckers)
Use decoys to attract birds to new sites
Use techniques to increase the survival of species after capture
Use vocalisations to attract birds to new sites
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (gamebirds)
Alter habitats to encourage birds to leave
Ensure translocated birds are familiar with each other before release
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (auks)
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (megapodes)
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (owls)
Translocate nests to avoid disturbance
Ensure genetic variation to increase translocation success
3.15 Captive breeding, rearing and releases (ex situ conservation)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders)
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (vultures)
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (wildfowl)
Freeze semen for artificial insemination
Use artificial insemination in captive breeding
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (bustards)
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (cranes)
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (pigeons)
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (rails)
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (seabirds)
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (songbirds)
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (storks and ibises)
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (tinamous)
Use puppets to increase the success of hand-rearing
Wash contaminated semen and use it for artificial insemination
Can captive breeding have deleterious effects?
3.15.2 Release captive-bred individuals
Provide supplementary food after release
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (cranes)
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (raptors)
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (songbirds)
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (vultures)
Release birds as adults or sub-adults not juveniles
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (bustards)
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (gamebirds)
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (owls)
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (parrots)
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (pigeons)
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (rails)
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (waders)
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (wildfowl)
Release chicks and adults in ‘coveys’
Use ‘anti-predator training’ to improve survival after release
Use appropriate populations to source released populations
Use ‘flying training’ before release
Use holding pens at release sites
Use microlites to help birds migrate
Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland
Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife (includes no spray, gap-filling and laying)
Pay farmers to cover the cost of conservation measures (as in agri-environment schemes)
Provide supplementary food for birds or mammals
Connect areas of natural or semi-natural habitat
Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
Make direct payments per clutch for farmland birds
Manage the agricultural landscape to enhance floral resources
Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
Provide nest boxes for bees (solitary bees or bumblebees)
Provide other resources for birds (water, sand for bathing)
Provide refuges during harvest or mowing
Apply ‘cross compliance’ environmental standards linked to all subsidy payments
Implement food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming (organic, LEAF marque)
Introduce nest boxes stocked with solitary bees
Maintain in-field elements such as field islands and rockpiles
Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit wildlife
Manage woodland edges to benefit wildlife
Plant in-field trees (not farm woodland)
Protect in-field trees (includes management such as pollarding and surgery)
Provide foraging perches (e.g. for shrikes)
Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)
Restore or maintain dry stone walls
Support or maintain low intensity agricultural systems
Leave cultivated, uncropped margins or plots (includes ‘lapwing plots’)
Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
Convert or revert arable land to permanent grassland
Create rotational grass or clover leys
Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
Plant crops in spring rather than autumn
Sow rare or declining arable weeds
Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings
Leave unharvested cereal headlands in arable fields
Use new crop types to benefit wildlife (such as perennial cereal crops)
Implement ‘mosaic management’, a Dutch agri-environment option
Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
Take field corners out of management
4.3 Perennial (non-timber) crops
Manage short-rotation coppice to benefit wildlife (includes 8 m rides)
Restore or create traditional orchards
Restore or create species-rich, semi-natural grassland
Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
Delay mowing or first grazing date on grasslands
Leave uncut strips of rye grass on silage fields
Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
Maintain upland heath/moorland
Reduce management intensity on permanent grasslands (several interventions at once)
Restore or create traditional water meadows
Add yellow rattle seed Rhinanthus minor to hay meadows
Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)
Maintain wood pasture and parkland
Plant cereals for whole crop silage
Raise mowing height on grasslands
Restore or create upland heath/moorland
Restore or create wood pasture
Use traditional breeds of livestock
Reduce grazing intensity on grassland (including seasonal removal of livestock)
Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality
Plant brassica fodder crops (grazed in situ)
Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
4.5 Threat: Residential and commercial development
Provide owl nest boxes (tawny owl, barn owl)
Maintain traditional farm buildings
Provide bat boxes, bat grilles, improvements to roosts
Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally
Use organic rather than mineral fertilizers
Reduce chemical inputs in grassland management
Provide buffer strips alongside water courses (rivers and streams)
Make selective use of spring herbicides
4.7 Threat: Transport and service corridors
Manage land under power lines to benefit wildlife
4.8 Threat: Hunting and trapping (for pest control, food or sport)
Enforce legislation to protect birds against persecution
Provide ‘sacrificial’ grasslands to reduce the impact of wild geese on crops
Use alerts to reduce grey partridge by-catch during shoots
Use scaring devices (e.g. gas guns) and other deterrents to reduce persecution of native species
4.9 Threat: Natural system modification
Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
Manage heather by swiping to simulate burning
Manage heather, gorse or grass by burning
Remove flood defence banks to allow inundation
4.10 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species
Control predatory mammals and birds (foxes, crows, stoats and weasels)
Control weeds without damaging other plants in conservation areas
Protect individual nests of ground-nesting birds
Erect predator-proof fencing around important breeding sites for waders
Control invasive non-native plants on farmland (such as Himalayan balsam, Japanese knotweed)
Provide medicated grit for grouse
4.11 Threat: Education and awareness
Provide specialist advice, assistance preparing conservation plans
Provide training for land managers, farmers and farm advisers
5.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development
Compensate for woodland removal with compensatory planting
Incorporate existing trees or woods into the landscape of new developments
Provide legal protection of forests from development
5.1.2 Tourism and recreation areas
Create managed paths/signs to contain disturbance
Re-route paths, control access or close paths
Use warning signs to prevent fire
Use wire fences within grazing areas to exclude livestock from specific forest sections
Prevent livestock grazing in forests
Reduce the intensity of livestock grazing in forests
Shorten livestock grazing period or control grazing season in forests
Provide financial incentives not to graze
5.3 Threat: Transport and service corridors
Maintain/create habitat corridors
5.4 Threat: Biological resource use
5.4.1 Thinning and wood harvesting
Log/remove trees within forests: effects on understory plants
Thin trees within forests: effects on understory plants
Thin trees within forests: effects on young trees
Use shelterwood harvest instead of clearcutting
Thin trees within forests: effects on mature trees
Log/remove trees within forests: effects on young trees
Use partial retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
Use summer instead of winter harvesting
Remove woody debris after timber harvest
Log/remove trees within forests: effect on mature trees
Log/remove trees within forests: effect on effects on non-vascular plants
Thin trees within forests: effects on non-vascular plants
Adopt continuous cover forestry
Use brash mats during harvesting to avoid soil compaction
Sustainable management of non-timber products
Use prescribed fire: effect on understory plants
Use prescribed fire: effect on young trees
Use prescribed fire: effect on mature trees
Mechanically remove understory vegetation to reduce wildfires
Use herbicides to remove understory vegetation to reduce wildfires
Construct water detention areas to slow water flow and restore riparian forests
Introduce beavers to impede water flow in forest watercourses
Recharge groundwater to restore wetland forest
5.5.3 Changing disturbance regime
Use clearcutting to increase understory diversity
Use group-selection harvesting
Thin trees by girdling (cutting rings around tree trunks)
Use thinning followed by prescribed fire
Adopt conservation grazing of woodland
Imitate natural disturbances by pushing over trees
Pollard trees (top cutting or top pruning)
5.6 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species
Manually/mechanically remove invasive plants
Use herbicides to remove invasive plant species
Use grazing to remove invasive plant species
Use prescribed fire to remove invasive plant species
Manually/mechanically remove native plants
Use wire fences to exclude large native herbivores
Use electric fencing to exclude large native herbivores
Control large herbivore populations
Control medium-sized herbivores
Use fencing to enclose large herbivores (e.g. deer)
Remove nitrogen and phosphorus using harvested products
5.8 Threat: Climate change and severe weather
Prevent damage from strong winds
Adopt community-based management to protect forests
Adopt Protected Species legislation (impact on forest management)
5.10 Habitat restoration and creation
5.10.1 Restoration after wildfire
5.10.2 Restoration after agriculture
Restore wood pasture (e.g. introduce grazing)
5.10.3 Manipulate habitat to increase planted tree survival during restoration
Apply herbicides after restoration planting
Cover the ground using techniques other than plastic mats after restoration planting
Cover the ground with plastic mats after restoration planting
Use selective thinning after restoration planting
5.10.4 Restore forest community
Build bird-perches to enhance natural seed dispersal
Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance diversity
Water plants to preserve dry tropical forest species
Restore woodland herbaceous plants using transplants and nursery plugs
Use rotational grazing to restore oak savannas
5.10.5 Prevent/encourage leaf litter accumulation
Remove or disturb leaf litter to enhance germination
Encourage leaf litter development in new planting
5.10.6 Increase soil fertility
Use vegetation removal together with mechanical disturbance to the soil
Use soil scarification or ploughing to enhance germination
Add lime to the soil to increase fertility
Use soil disturbance to enhance germination (excluding scarification or ploughing)
5.11 Actions to improve survival and growth rate of planted trees
Prepare the ground before tree planting
Use mechanical thinning before or after planting
Fence to prevent grazing after tree planting
Use herbicide after tree planting
Use prescribed fire after tree planting
Apply insecticide to protect seedlings from invertebrates
Add lime to the soil after tree planting
Add organic matter after tree planting
Cover the ground with straw after tree planting
Improve soil quality after tree planting (excluding applying fertilizer)
Manage woody debris before tree planting
Use tree guards or shelters to protect planted trees
Use weed mats to protect planted trees
Mechanically remove understory vegetation after tree planting
Use different planting or seeding methods
Use fertilizer after tree planting
Apply fungicide to protect seedlings from fungal diseases
Infect tree seedlings with mycorrhizae
Introduce leaf litter to forest stands
Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance the survival and growth of planted trees
Reduce erosion to increase seedling survival
Use pioneer plants or crops as nurse-plants
5.12 Education and awareness raising
Provide education programmes about forests
Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information
6.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development
Remove residential or commercial development from peatlands
Retain/create habitat corridors in developed areas
6.2 Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture
6.2.1 Multiple farming systems
Retain/create habitat corridors in farmed areas
Implement ‘mosaic management’ of agriculture
6.2.2 Wood and pulp plantations
Cut/remove/thin forest plantations
Cut/remove/thin forest plantations and rewet peat
6.2.3 Livestock farming and ranching
Exclude or remove livestock from degraded peatlands
Reduce intensity of livestock grazing
Use barriers to keep livestock off ungrazed peatlands
Change season/timing of livestock grazing
6.3 Threat: Energy production and mining
Replace blocks of vegetation after mining or peat extraction
Retain/create habitat corridors in areas of energy production or mining
6.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors
Maintain/restore water flow across service corridors
Backfill trenches dug for pipelines
Retain/create habitat corridors across service corridors
6.5 Threat: Biological resource use
Use low impact harvesting techniques
Use low impact vehicles for harvesting
Implement ‘mosaic management’ when harvesting wild biological resources
Provide new technologies to reduce pressure on wild biological resources
6.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance
Physically exclude vehicles from peatlands
Restrict vehicle use on peatlands
Restrict pedestrian access to peatlands
Physically exclude pedestrians from peatlands
Install boardwalks/paths to prevent trampling
Wear snowshoes to prevent trampling
Adopt ecotourism principles/create an ecotourism site
6.7 Threat: Natural system modifications
6.7.1 Modified water management
Rewet peatland (raise water table)
Reduce water level of flooded peatlands
Restore natural water level fluctuations
6.7.2 Modified vegetation management
Cut/mow herbaceous plants to maintain or restore disturbance
Cut large trees/shrubs to maintain or restore disturbance
Use grazing to maintain or restore disturbance
Remove plant litter to maintain or restore disturbance
Use prescribed fire to maintain or restore disturbance
6.7.3 Modified wild fire regime
Thin vegetation to prevent wild fires
Rewet peat to prevent wild fires
Adopt zero burning policies near peatlands
6.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species
Implement biosecurity measures to prevent introductions of problematic species
Use prescribed fire to control problematic plants
Physically remove problematic plants
Use cutting/mowing to control problematic herbaceous plants
Change season/timing of cutting/mowing
Use cutting to control problematic large trees/shrubs
Use herbicide to control problematic plants
Introduce an organism to control problematic plants
Physically damage problematic plants
Use grazing to control problematic plants
Use covers/barriers to control problematic plants
Exclude wild herbivores using physical barriers
Control populations of wild herbivores
6.9.1 Multiple sources of pollution
Divert/replace polluted water source(s)
Clean waste water before it enters the environment
Slow down input water to allow more time for pollutants to be removed
Retain or create buffer zones between pollution sources and peatlands
Use artificial barriers to prevent pollution entering peatlands
Reduce fertilizer or herbicide use near peatlands
Manage fertilizer or herbicide application near peatlands
6.9.2 Agricultural and aquacultural effluents
Convert to organic agriculture or aquaculture near peatlands
Limit the density of livestock on farmland near peatlands
Use biodegradable oil in farming machinery
6.9.3 Industrial and military effluents
Remove oil from contaminated peatlands
Remove pollutants from waste gases before they enter the environment
Add lime to reduce acidity and/or increase fertility
6.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather
Add water to peatlands to compensate for drought
Plant shelter belts to protect peatlands from wind
Build barriers to protect peatlands from the sea
Restore/create peatlands in areas that will be climatically suitable in the future
6.11 Habitat creation and restoration
6.11.1 General habitat creation and restoration
Restore/create peatland vegetation (multiple interventions)
Restore/create peatland vegetation using the moss layer transfer technique
6.11.2 Modify physical habitat only
Fill/block ditches to create conditions suitable for peatland plants
Remove upper layer of peat/soil
Reprofile/relandscape peatland
Disturb peatland surface to encourage growth of desirable plants
Cover peatland with organic mulch
Cover peatland with something other than mulch
Stabilize peatland surface to help plants colonize
Build artificial bird perches to encourage seed dispersal
Roughen peat surface to create microclimates
6.11.3 Introduce peatland vegetation
Add mosses to peatland surface
Add mixed vegetation to peatland surface
Directly plant peatland mosses
Directly plant peatland trees/shrubs
Introduce seeds of peatland herbs
Introduce seeds of peatland trees/shrubs
6.12 Actions to complement planting
Cover peatland with organic mulch (after planting)
Cover peatland with something other than mulch (after planting)
Reprofile/relandscape peatland (before planting)
Add inorganic fertilizer (before/after planting)
Introduce nurse plants (to aid focal peatland plants)
Irrigate peatland (before/after planting)
Create mounds or hollows (before planting)
Add fresh peat to peatland (before planting)
Remove vegetation that could compete with planted peatland vegetation
Add root-associated fungi to plants (before planting)
Add lime (before/after planting)
Add organic fertilizer (before/after planting)
Rewet peatland (before/after planting)
Remove upper layer of peat/soil (before planting)
Bury upper layer of peat/soil (before planting)
Encapsulate planted moss fragments in beads/gel
Use fences or barriers to protect planted vegetation
Protect or prepare vegetation before planting (other interventions)
Pay landowners to protect peatlands
Increase ‘on the ground’ protection (e.g. rangers)
Create legislation for ‘no net loss’ of wetlands
Adopt voluntary agreements to protect peatlands
Allow sustainable use of peatlands
Raise awareness amongst the public (general)
Provide education or training programmes about peatlands or peatland management
Lobby, campaign or demonstrate to protect peatlands
Raise awareness amongst the public (wild fire)
Raise awareness amongst the public (problematic species)
Raise awareness through engaging volunteers in peatland management or monitoring
7.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development
Remove and relocate ‘problem’ animals
Relocate primates to non-residential areas
Humans chase primates using random loud noise
Prohibit (livestock) farmers from entering protected areas
Use nets to keep primates out of fruit trees
Create natural habitat islands within agricultural land
Use fences as biological corridors for primates
Provide sacrificial rows of crops on outer side of fields
Compensate farmers for produce loss caused by primates
Pay farmers to cover the costs of non-harmful strategies to deter primates
Retain nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields
Plant nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields
Regularly remove traps and snares around agricultural fields
Certify farms and market their products as ‘primate friendly’
Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land
Install mechanical barriers to deter primates (e.g. fences, ditches)
Use of natural hedges to deter primates
Use of unpalatable buffer crops
Change of crop (i.e. to a crop less palatable to primates)
Plant crops favoured by primates away from primate areas
Destroy habitat within buffer zones to make them unusable for primates
Chase crop-raiding primates using dogs
Train langur monkeys to deter rhesus macaques
Use loud-speakers to broadcast sounds of potential threats (e.g. barking dogs, explosions, gunshots)
Use loud-speakers to broadcast primate alarm calls
Strategically lay out the scent of a primate predator (e.g. leopard, lion)
Humans chase primates using bright light
7.3 Threat: Energy production and mining
Minimize ground vibrations caused by open cast mining activities
Establish no-mining zones in/near watersheds so as to preserve water levels and water quality
Use ‘set-aside’ areas of natural habitat for primate protection within mining area
Certify mines and market their products as ‘primate friendly’ (e.g. ape-friendly cellular phones)
Create/preserve primate habitat on islands before dam construction
7.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors
Install rope or pole (canopy) bridges
Install green bridges (overpasses)
Impose fines for breaking the speed limit or colliding with primates
Avoid building roads in key habitat or migration routes
Re-use old roads rather than building new roads
Re-route vehicles around protected areas
Install speed bumps to reduce vehicle collisions with primates
Provide adequate signage of presence of primates on or near roads
7.5 Threat: Biological resource use
Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares
Provide better equipment (e.g. guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols
Implement local no-hunting community policies/traditional hunting ban
Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
Strengthen/support/re-install traditions/taboos that forbid the killing of primates
Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols
Implement no-hunting seasons for primates
Implement sustainable harvesting of primates (e.g. with permits, resource access agreements)
Encourage use of traditional hunting methods rather than using guns
Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal primate bushmeat
Provide medicine to local communities to control killing of primates for medicinal purposes
Inspect bushmeat markets for illegal primate species
Inform hunters of the dangers (e.g., disease transmission) of wild primate meat
Use selective logging instead of clear-cutting
Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clear-cutting
Implement small and dispersed logging compartments
Use shelter wood cutting instead of clear-cutting
Leave hollow trees in areas of selective logging for sleeping sites
Clear open patches in the forest
Manually control or remove secondary mid-storey and ground-level vegetation
Avoid slashing climbers/lianas, trees housing them, hemi-epiphytic figs, and ground vegetation
Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas
Close non-essential roads as soon as logging operations are complete
Use ‘set-asides’ for primate protection within logging area
Reduce the size of forestry teams to include employees only (not family members)
Certify forest concessions and market their products as ‘primate friendly’
Provide domestic meat to workers of the logging company to reduce hunting
7.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance
Implement a ‘no-feeding of wild primates’ policy
Put up signs to warn people about not feeding primates
Resettle illegal human communities (i.e. in a protected area) to another location
Build fences to keep humans out
Restrict number of people that are allowed access to the site
Install ‘primate-proof’ garbage bins
Do not allow people to consume food within natural areas where primates can view them
7.7 Threat: Natural system modifications
Use prescribed burning within the context of home range size and use
Protect important food/nest trees before burning
7.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species and genes
7.8.1 Problematic animal/plant species and genes
Reduce primate predation by non-primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
Reduce primate predation by other primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
Control habitat-altering mammals (e.g. elephants) through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
Control inter-specific competition for food through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation
Preventative vaccination of habituated or wild primates
Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
Keep safety distance to habituated animals
Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated animals
Implement quarantine for primates before reintroduction/translocation
Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy
Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc.
Remove/treat external/internal parasites to increase reproductive success/survival
Conduct veterinary screens of animals before reintroducing/translocating them
Implement continuous health monitoring with permanent vet on site
Implement quarantine for people arriving at, and leaving the site
Wear gloves when handling primate food, tool items, etc.
Control ‘reservoir’ species to reduce parasite burdens/pathogen sources
Avoid contact between wild primates and human-raised primates
Implement a health programme for local communities
Reduce garbage/solid waste to avoid primate injuries
Reduce noise pollution by restricting development activities to certain times of the day/night
Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use
Involve local community in primate research and conservation management
Regularly play TV and radio announcements to raise primate conservation awareness
Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, and discussions
Install billboards to raise primate conservation awareness
Integrate local religion/taboos into conservation education
Create/protect habitat corridors
Legally protect primate habitat
Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes
Create buffer zones around protected primate habitat
Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas
7.11.2 Habitat creation or restoration
Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas
Use weeding to promote regeneration of indigenous tree communities
Guard habituated primate groups to ensure their safety/well-being
Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc.
Implement legal protection for primate species under threat
Implement birth control to stabilize primate community/population size
Regularly and continuously provide supplementary food to primates
Regularly provide supplementary food to primates during resource scarce periods only
Provide supplementary food for a certain period of time only
Provide additional sleeping platforms/nesting sites for primates
Provide artificial water sources
Provide salt licks for primates
Provide supplementary food to primates through the establishment of prey populations
Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is absent
Translocate (capture and release) wild primates from development sites to natural habitat elsewhere
Allow primates to adapt to local habitat conditions for some time before introduction to the wild
Reintroduce primates in groups
Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals
Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present
Reintroduce primates into habitat with predators
Reintroduce primates into habitat without predators
Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and reared in cages
Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: limited free-ranging experience
Rehabilitate injured/orphaned primates
Fostering appropriate behaviour to facilitate rehabilitation
7.13 Livelihood; economic and other incentives
7.13.1 Provide benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife
7.13.2 Long-term presence of research/tourism project
Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
Run tourism project and ensure permanent human presence at site
Permanent presence of staff/managers
8. SHRUBLAND AND HEATHLAND CONSERVATION
8.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development
Remove residential or commercial development
Maintain/create habitat corridors in developed areas
8.2 Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture
Use fences to exclude livestock from shrublands
Shorten the period during which livestock can graze
8.3 Threat: Energy production and mining
Maintain/create habitat corridors in areas of energy production or mining
8.4 Threat: Biological resource use
Legally protect plant species affected by gathering
Place signs to deter gathering of shrubland species
Reduce the frequency of prescribed burning
8.5 Threat: Transportation and service corridors
Maintain habitat corridors over or under roads and other transportation corridors
Create buffer zones besides roads and other transportation corridors
8.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance
Re-route paths to reduce habitat disturbance
Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance
Plant spiny shrubs to act as barriers to people
8.7 Threat: Natural system modifications
Use prescribed burning to mimic natural fire cycle
Use prescribed burning to reduce the potential for large wild fires
Cut strips of vegetation to reduce the spread of fire
8.7.2 Modified vegetation management
Reinstate the use of traditional burning practices
Use cutting/mowing to mimic grazing
8.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species
8.8.1 Problematic tree species
Cut trees and remove leaf litter
Cut trees and remove seedlings
Use prescribed burning to control trees
Cut trees and use prescribed burning
Increase number of livestock and use prescribed burning to control trees
Cut/mow shrubland to control trees
Cut trees and increase livestock numbers
8.8.2 Problematic grass species
Cut/mow to control grass and sow seed of shrubland plants
Cut/mow and rotovate to control grass
Apply herbicide and sow seeds of shrubland plants to control grass
Apply herbicide and remove plants to control grass
Use precribed burning to control grass
Cut and use prescribed burning to control grass
Use herbicide and prescribed burning to control grass
Add mulch to control grass and sow seed
Cut/mow, rotovate and sow seeds to control grass
Use herbicide to control grass
Use herbicide to control bracken
Cut and apply herbicide to control bracken
Use ‘bracken bruiser’ to control bracken
Use herbicide and remove leaf litter to control bracken
Use herbicide and sow seed of shrubland plants to control bracken
Increase grazing intensity to control bracken
Use herbicide and increase livestock numbers to control bracken
Use fences to exclude large herbivores
Reduce numbers of large herbivores
Use biological control to reduce the number of problematic invertebrates
Mow shrubland to reduce impact of pollutants
Burn shrublands to reduce impacts of pollutants
Plant vegetation to act as a buffer to exclude vegetation
Reduce pesticide use on nearby agricultural/forestry land
Reduce herbicide use on nearby agricultural/forestry land
Reduce fertilizer use on nearby agricultural/forestry land
Add lime to shrubland to reduce the impacts of sulphur dioxide pollution
8.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather
Restore habitat in area predicted to have suitable habitat for shrubland species in the future
8.11 Threat: Habitat protection
Legally protect habitat around shrubland
8.12 Habitat restoration and creation
Allow shrubland to regenerate without active management
Restore/create connectivity between shrublands.
8.12.2 Modify physical habitat
Use erosion blankets/mats to aid plant establishment
Add mulch and fertilizer to soil
Remove trees/crops to restore shrubland structure
Remove trees, leaf litter and topsoil
8.12.3 Introduce vegetation or seeds
Sow seeds and plant individual plants
Build bird perches to encourage colonization by plants
8.13 Actions to benefit introduced vegetation
Add fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
Add peat to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
Add mulch and fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
Add gypsum to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
Add sulphur to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
Strip/disturb topsoil (alongside planting/seeding)
Add topsoil (alongside planting/seeding)
Plant/sow seeds of nurse plants alongside focal plants
Plant/seed under established vegetation
Add root associated bacteria/fungi to introduced plants
Raise awareness amongst the general public
Provide education programmes about shrublands
9. MANAGEMENT OF CAPTIVE ANIMALS
9.1 Ex-situ conservation – breeding amphibians
9.1.1 Refining techniques using less threatened species
9.1.2 Changing environmental conditions/microclimate
Vary enclosure temperature to simulate seasonal changes in the wild
Provide artificial aquifers for species which breed in upwelling springs
Vary artificial rainfall to simulate seasonal changes in the wild
Vary duration of enclosure lighting to simulate seasonal changes in the wild
Simulate rainfall using sound recordings of rain and/or thunderstorms
Allow temperate amphibians to hibernate
Allow amphibians from highly seasonal environments to have a period of dormancy
Vary water flow/speed of artificial streams in enclosures for torrent breeding species
9.1.3 Changing enclosure design for spawning or egg laying sites
Provide multiple egg laying sites within an enclosure
Provide natural substrate for species which do not breed in water (e.g. burrowing/tunnel breeders)
Provide particular plants as breeding areas or egg laying sites
9.1.4 Manipulate social conditions
Manipulate sex ratio within the enclosure
Play recordings of breeding calls to simulate breeding season in the wild
Provide visual barriers for territorial species
Manipulate adult density within the enclosure
9.1.5 Changing the diet of adults
Supplement diets with carotenoids (including for colouration)
Increase caloric intake of females in preparation for breeding
Vary food provision to reflect seasonal availability in the wild
Formulate adult diet to reflect nutritional composition of wild foods
Supplement diets with vitamins/calcium fed to prey (e.g. prey gut loading)
Supplement diets with vitamins/calcium applied to food (e.g. dusting prey).
9.1.6 Manipulate rearing conditions for young
Manipulate temperature of enclosure to improve development or survival to adulthood
Formulate larval diets to improve development or survival to adulthood
Manipulate larval density within the enclosure
Leave infertile eggs at spawn site as food for egg-eating larvae
Manipulate humidity to improve development or survival to adulthood
Allow adults to attend their eggs
Use artificial cloning from frozen or fresh tissue
Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release
Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding
Provide bones, hides or partial carcasses
Feed whole carcasses (with or without organs/gastrointestinal tract)
Feed commercially prepared diets
Supplement meat-based diets with prebiotic plant material to facilitate digestion
Supplement meat-based diet with amino acid
Supplement meat-based diet with vitamins or minerals
Supplement meat-based diet with fatty acids
Increase variety of food items
9.2.2 Food presentation and enrichment
Present food inside objects (e.g. Boomer balls)
Provide devices to simulate live prey, including sounds, lures, pulleys and bungees
Change location of food around enclosure
Provide live invertebrate prey
Use food as a reward in animal training
Provide food on a random temporal schedule
Alter food abundance or type seasonally
Provide food during natural active periods
Alter feeding schedule according to visitor activity
Provide food during visitor experiences
Feed individuals within a social group
9.3 Promoting natural feeding behaviours in primates in captivity
Scatter food throughout enclosure
Hide food in containers (including boxes and bags)
Present food items whole instead of processed
Present feeds at different crowd levels
Maximise both vertical and horizontal presentation locations
Present food in puzzle feeders
Present food in water (including dishes and ponds)
Present food dipped in food colouring
Provide live vegetation in planters for foraging
Present food which required the use (or modification) of tools
Paint gum solutions on rough bark
Add gum solutions to drilled hollow feeders
Provide gum (including artificial gum)
Provide nectar (including artificial nectar)
Provide herbs or other plants for self-medication
Modify ingredients/nutrient composition seasonally (not daily) to reflect natural variability
Change the number of feeds per day
Provide food at natural (wild) feeding times
Provide access to food at all times (day and night)
9.3.4 Social group manipulation
Feed individuals in social groups
10. SOME ASPECTS OF CONTROL OF FRESHWATER INVASIVE SPECIES
10.1.1 Parrot’s feather Myriophyllum aquaticum
Chemical control using the herbicide 2,4-D
Chemical control using the herbicide carfentrazone-ethyl
Chemical control using the herbicide triclopyr
Chemical control using the herbicide diquat
Chemical control using the herbicide endohall
Chemical control using other herbicides
Reduction of trade through legislation and codes of conduct
Biological control using herbivores
Biological control using plant pathogens
Mechanical harvesting or cutting
Suction dredging and diver-assisted suction removal
Manual harvesting (hand-weeding)
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides
Decontamination / preventing further spread
10.1.2 Floating pennywort Hydrocotyle ranunculoides
Chemical control using herbicides
Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal
Biological control using co-evolved, host-specific herbivores
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides
Biological control using native herbivores
Environmental control (e.g. shading, reduced flow, reduction of rooting depth, or dredging)
10.1.3 Water primrose Ludwigia spp.
Biological control using co-evolved, host specific herbivores
Chemical control using herbicides
Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides
Biological control using native herbivores
Environmental control (e.g. shading, reduced flow, reduction of rooting depth, or dredging)
Use of mats placed on the bottom of the waterbody
10.1.4 Skunk cabbage Lysichiton americanus
Chemical control using herbicides
Biological control using co-evolved, host-specific herbivores
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides
Biological control using native herbivores
Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal
Environmental control (e.g. shading, or promotion of native plants)
10.1.5 New Zealand pigmyweed Crassula helmsii
Chemical control using herbicides
Decontamination to prevent further spread
Use lightproof barriers to control plants
Use a combination of control methods
Use dyes to reduce light levels
Use hot foam to control plants
Use hydrogen peroxide to control plants
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides
Biological control using herbivores
Physical control using manual/mechanical control or dredging
Plant other species to suppress growth
10.2 Threat: Invasive molluscs
Use of gas-impermeable barriers
Exposure to disease-causing organisms
Public awareness and education.
10.3 Threat: Invasive crustaceans
10.3.1 Ponto-Caspian gammarids
Dewatering (drying out) habitat
Biological control using predatory fish
Exposure to disease-causing organisms
10.3.2 Procambarus spp. crayfish
Trapping combined with encouragement of predators
Remove the crayfish by electrofishing
10.4.1 Brown and black bullheads
Biological control of beneficial species
Biological control using native predators
Increasing carbon dioxide concentrations
Trapping using sound or pheromonal lures
Using a combination of netting and electrofishing
Use of barriers to prevent migration
Biological control of beneficial species
Biological control using native predators
Increasing carbon dioxide concentrations
Trapping using visual, sound and pheromonal lures
Using a combination of netting and electrofishing
10.5 Threat: Invasive reptiles
10.5.1 Red-eared terrapin Trachemys scripta
Biological control using native predators
Search and removal using sniffer dogs
10.6 Threat: Invasive amphibians
10.6.1 American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeiana
Biological control using native predators
Biological control of co-occurring beneficial species
11. SOME ASPECTS OF ENHANCING NATURAL PEST CONTROL
11.1 Reducing agricultural pollution
Alter the timing of insecticide use
Incorporate parasitism rates when setting thresholds for insecticide use
Use pesticides only when pests or crop damage reach threshold levels
Grow non-crop plants that produce chemicals that attract natural enemies
Use chemicals to attract natural enemies
Leave part of the crop or pasture unharvested or uncut
Use mass-emergence devices to increase natural enemy populations
Combine trap and repellent crops in a push-pull system
Use crop rotation in potato farming systems
Incorporate plant remains into the soil that produce weed-controlling chemicals
Exclude ants that protect pests
Allow natural regeneration of ground cover beneath perennial crops
Isolate colonies of beneficial ants
11.5 Livestock farming and pasture
Grow plants that compete with damaging weeds
Delay mowing or first grazing date on pasture or grassland
Use grazing instead of cutting for pasture or grassland management
12.1 Reducing agricultural pollution
Change the timing of manure application
Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally
Control traffic and traffic timing
Change the timing of ploughing
Amend the soil using a mix of organic and inorganic amendments
Grow cover crops when the field is empty
Amend the soil with formulated chemical compounds
Grow cover crops beneath the main crop (living mulches) or between crop rows
Amend the soil with fresh plant material or crop remains
Amend the soil with manures and agricultural composts
Amend the soil with municipal wastes or their composts
Incorporate leys into crop rotation
Amend the soil with bacteria or fungi
Amend the soil with composts not otherwise specified
Amend the soil with crops grown as green manures
Amend the soil with non-chemical minerals and mineral wastes
Amend the soil with organic processing wastes or their composts
