Introduction

1

Who is What Works in Conservation for?

1

The Conservation Evidence project

1

Which conservation interventions are included?

2

How we review the literature

3

What does What Works in Conservation include?

4

Expert assessment of the evidence

4

Categorization of interventions

5

How to use What Works in Conservation

5

1.

AMPHIBIAN CONSERVATION

9

1.1

Threat: Residential and commercial development

11

Legal protection of species

11

Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites

12

Restrict herbicide, fungicide and pesticide use on and around ponds on golf courses

12

1.2

Threat: Agriculture

13

1.2.1

Engage farmers and other volunteers

13

Engage landowners and other volunteers to manage land for amphibians

13

Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures

13

1.2.2

Terrestrial habitat management

14

Manage silviculture practices in plantations

14

Manage cutting regime

14

Manage grazing regime

14

Maintain or restore hedges

15

Plant new hedges

15

Reduced tillage

15

1.2.3

Aquatic habitat management

15

Manage ditches

15

Exclude domestic animals or wild hogs from ponds by fencing

16

1.3

Threat: Energy production and mining

17

Artificially mist habitat to keep it damp

17

1.4

Threat: Transportation and service corridors

18

Close roads during seasonal amphibian migration

18

Modify gully pots and kerbs

19

Install barrier fencing along roads

19

Install culverts or tunnels as road crossings

19

Use signage to warn motorists

20

Use humans to assist migrating amphibians across roads

20

1.5

Threat: Biological resource use

21

1.5.1

Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals

21

Reduce impact of amphibian trade

21

Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations

22

Commercially breed amphibians for the pet trade

22

Use amphibians sustainably

22

1.5.2

Logging and wood harvesting

22

Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest

23

Use shelterwood harvesting instead of clearcutting

23

Leave coarse woody debris in forests

23

Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting

24

Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests

24

Use leave-tree harvesting instead of clearcutting

24

Harvest groups of trees instead of clearcutting

25

Thin trees within forests

25

1.6

Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance

26

Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance

26

1.7

Threat: Natural system modifications

27

Regulate water levels

27

Mechanically remove mid-storey or ground vegetation

28

Use herbicides to control mid-storey or ground vegetation

28

Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (forests)

28

Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (grassland)

29

1.8

Threat: Invasive and other problematic species

30

1.8.1

Reduce predation by other species

30

Remove or control fish by drying out ponds

30

Remove or control fish population by catching

31

Remove or control invasive bullfrogs

31

Remove or control invasive viperine snake

31

Remove or control mammals

31

Remove or control fish using Rotenone

32

Exclude fish with barriers

32

Encourage aquatic plant growth as refuge against fish predation

32

Remove or control non-native crayfish

32

1.8.2

Reduce competition with other species

33

Reduce competition from native amphibians

33

Remove or control invasive Cuban tree frogs

33

Remove or control invasive cane toads

33

1.8.3

Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species

34

Control invasive plants

34

Prevent heavy usage/exclude wildfowl from aquatic habitat

34

1.8.4

Reduce parasitism and disease – chytridiomycosis

35

Use temperature treatment to reduce infection

35

Use antifungal treatment to reduce infection

35

Add salt to ponds

36

Immunize amphibians against infection

36

Remove the chytrid fungus from ponds

36

Sterilize equipment when moving between amphibian sites

37

Treating amphibians in the wild or pre-release

37

Use gloves to handle amphibians

37

Use antibacterial treatment to reduce infection

37

Use antifungal skin bacteria or peptides to reduce infection

38

Use zooplankton to remove zoospores

38

1.8.5

Reduce parasitism and disease – ranaviruses

38

Sterilize equipment to prevent ranaviruses

38

1.9

Threat: Pollution

39

1.9.1

Agricultural pollution

39

Create walls or barriers to exclude pollutants

39

Plant riparian buffer strips

39

Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use

40

Prevent pollution from agricultural lands or sewage treatment facilities entering watercourses

40

1.9.2

Industrial pollution

40

Add limestone to water bodies to reduce acidification

40

Augment ponds with ground water to reduce acidification

41

1.10

Threat: Climate change and severe weather

42

Create microclimate and microhabitat refuges

42

Maintain ephemeral ponds

42

Deepen ponds to prevent desiccation

43

Use irrigation systems for amphibian sites

43

Artificially shade ponds to prevent desiccation

43

Protect habitat along elevational gradients

43

Provide shelter habitat

43

1.11

Habitat protection

44

Retain buffer zones around core habitat

44

Protect habitats for amphibians

44

Retain connectivity between habitat patches

45

1.12

Habitat restoration and creation

46

1.12.1

Terrestrial habitat

46

Replant vegetation

46

Clear vegetation

47

Create artificial hibernacula or aestivation sites

47

Create refuges

47

Restore habitat connectivity

48

Change mowing regime

48

Create habitat connectivity

48

1.12.2

Aquatic habitat

48

Create ponds (amphibians in general)

49

Create ponds (frogs)

49

Create ponds (natterjack toads)

50

Create ponds (salamanders including newts)

50

Create wetlands

50

Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds

51

Restore wetlands

51

Create ponds (great crested newts)

52

Create ponds (green toads)

52

Create ponds (toads)

52

Remove specific aquatic plants

52

Restore ponds

53

Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading

53

Add nutrients to new ponds as larvae food source

54

Add specific plants to aquatic habitats

54

Add woody debris to ponds

54

Create refuge areas in aquatic habitats

54

1.13

Species management

55

1.13.1

Translocate amphibians

55

Translocate amphibians (amphibians in general)

55

Translocate amphibians (great crested newts)

56

Translocate amphibians (natterjack toads)

56

Translocate amphibians (salamanders including newts)

56

Translocate amphibians (toads)

57

Translocate amphibians (wood frogs)

57

Translocate amphibians (frogs)

57

1.13.2

Captive breeding, rearing and releases

58

Release captive-bred individuals (amphibians in general)

59

Release captive-bred individuals (frogs)

59

Breed amphibians in captivity (frogs)

59

Breed amphibians in captivity (harlequin toads)

60

Breed amphibians in captivity (Mallorcan midwife toad)

60

Breed amphibians in captivity (salamanders including newts)

60

Breed amphibians in captivity (toads)

60

Head-start amphibians for release

61

Release captive-bred individuals (Mallorcan midwife toad)

61

Release captive-bred individuals (toads)

61

Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding

62

Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release

62

Release captive-bred individuals (salamanders including newts)

62

Freeze sperm or eggs for future use

63

Release captive-bred individuals (green and golden bell frogs)

63

1.14

Education and awareness raising

64

Engage volunteers to collect amphibian data (citizen science)

64

Provide education programmes about amphibians

64

Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information

65

2.

BAT CONSERVATION

67

2.1

Threat: Residential and commercial development

69

Protect brownfield sites

69

Provide foraging habitat in urban areas

70

Change timing of building works

70

Conserve existing roosts within developments

70

Conserve old buildings or structures as roosting sites for bats within developments

70

Create alternative roosts within buildings

70

Maintain bridges and retain crevices for roosting

70

Retain or relocate access points to bat roosts

70

Retain or replace existing bat commuting routes within development

70

2.2

Threat: Agriculture

71

2.2.1

Land use change

71

Protect or create wetlands as foraging habitat for bats

71

Retain or plant trees on agricultural land to replace foraging habitat

72

Conserve old buildings or structures on agricultural land as roosting sites for bats

72

Retain old or dead trees with hollows and cracks as roosting sites for bats on agricultural land

72

Retain or replace existing bat commuting routes on agricultural land

72

2.2.2

Intensive farming

72

Convert to organic farming

73

Encourage agroforestry

73

Introduce agri-environment schemes

73

2.3

Threat: Energy production – wind turbines

74

Switch off turbines at low wind speeds to reduce bat fatalities

74

Deter bats from turbines using ultrasound

75

Deter bats from turbines using radar

75

Automatically switch off wind turbines when bat activity is high

75

Close off nacelles on wind turbines to prevent roosting bats

75

Leave a minimum distance between turbines and habitat features used by bats

75

Modify turbine design to reduce bat fatalities

75

Modify turbine placement to reduce bat fatalities

75

Remove turbine lighting to avoid attracting bats

75

2.4

Threat: Energy production – mining

76

Legally protect bat hibernation sites in mines from reclamation

76

Provide artificial hibernacula to replace roosts lost in reclaimed mines

76

Relocate bats from reclaimed mines to new hibernation sites

76

2.5

Threat: Transportation and service corridors

77

Install underpasses as road crossing structures for bats

77

Divert bats to safe crossing points with plantings or fencing

78

Install bat gantries or bat bridges as road crossing structures for bats

78

Install overpasses as road crossing structures for bats

78

Deter bats with lighting

78

Install green bridges as road crossing structures for bats

78

Install hop-overs as road crossing structures for bats

78

Replace or improve habitat for bats around roads

78

2.6

Threat: Biological resource use

79

2.6.1

Hunting

79

Educate local communities about bats and hunting

79

Introduce and enforce legislation to control hunting of bats

79

Introduce sustainable harvesting of bats

79

2.6.2

Guano harvesting

79

Introduce and enforce legislation to regulate the harvesting of bat guano

80

Introduce sustainable harvesting of bat guano

80

2.6.3

Logging and wood harvesting

80

Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas

80

Use selective harvesting/reduced impact logging instead of clearcutting

81

Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting

81

Retain residual tree patches in logged areas

81

Thin trees within forests

82

Manage woodland or forest edges for bats

82

Replant native trees

82

Retain deadwood/snags within forests for roosting bats

82

2.7

Threat: Human disturbance – caving and tourism

83

Impose restrictions on cave visits

83

Use cave gates to restrict public access

84

Educate the public to reduce disturbance to hibernating bats

84

Legally protect bat hibernation sites

84

Maintain microclimate at underground hibernation/roost sites

84

Provide artificial hibernacula for bats to replace disturbed sites

84

2.8

Threat: Natural system modification – natural fire and fire suppression

85

Use prescribed burning

85

2.9

Threat: Invasive species

86

2.9.1

Invasive species

86

Remove invasive plant species

86

Translocate to predator or disease free areas

86

Control invasive predators

87

2.9.2

White-nose syndrome

87

Control anthropogenic spread

87

Cull infected bats

87

Increase population resistance

87

Modify cave environments to increase bat survival

87

2.10

Threat: Pollution

88

2.10.1

Domestic and urban waste water

88

Change effluent treatments of domestic and urban waste water

88

2.10.2

Agricultural and forestry effluents

88

Introduce legislation to control use

89

Change effluent treatments used in agriculture and forestry

89

2.10.3

Light and noise pollution

89

Leave bat roosts, roost entrances and commuting routes unlit

89

Minimize excess light pollution

89

Restrict timing of lighting

90

Use low pressure sodium lamps or use UV filters

90

Impose noise limits in proximity to roosts and bat habitats

90

2.10.4

Timber treatments

90

Use mammal safe timber treatments in roof spaces

90

Restrict timing of treatment

91

2.11

Providing artificial roost structures for bats

92

Provide artificial roost structures for bats

92

2.12

Education and awareness raising

93

Provide training to professionals

93

Educate homeowners about building and planning laws

93

Educate to improve public perception and raise awareness

93

3.

BIRD CONSERVATION

95

3.1

Habitat protection

97

Legally protect habitats for birds

97

Provide or retain un-harvested buffer strips

97

Ensure connectivity between habitat patches

98

3.2

Education and awareness raising

99

Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information

99

Provide bird feeding materials to families with young children

100

Enhance bird taxonomy skills through higher education and training

100

Provide training to conservationists and land managers on bird ecology and conservation

100

3.3

Threat: Residential and commercial development

101

Angle windows to reduce bird collisions

101

Mark windows to reduce bird collisions

101

3.4

Threat: Agriculture

103

3.4.1

All farming systems

103

Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture

104

Provide (or retain) set-aside areas in farmland

105

Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields

105

Increase the proportion of natural/semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape

106

Manage ditches to benefit wildlife

106

Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures

106

Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields

107

Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips

107

Leave refuges in fields during harvest

107

Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using bird scarers)

108

Relocate nests at harvest time to reduce nestling mortality

108

Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality

108

Control scrub on farmland

108

Offer per clutch payment for farmland birds

109

Manage hedges to benefit wildlife

109

Plant new hedges

109

Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using repellents)

109

Take field corners out of management

110

Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing

110

Cross compliance standards for all subsidy payments

110

Food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming

110

Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit birds

110

Plant in-field trees

110

Protect in-field trees

110

Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)

110

Support or maintain low-intensity agricultural systems

110

Tree pollarding, tree surgery

110

3.4.2

Arable farming

111

Create ‘skylark plots’ (undrilled patches in cereal fields)

111

Leave overwinter stubbles

112

Leave uncropped cultivated margins or fallow land (includes lapwing and stone curlew plots)

112

Sow crops in spring rather than autumn

113

Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example

113

Reduce tillage

113

Implement mosaic management

114

Increase crop diversity

114

Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)

114

Create beetle banks

114

Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows

115

Revert arable land to permanent grassland

115

Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings

115

Create corn bunting plots

115

Leave unharvested cereal headlands within arable fields

115

Plant nettle strips

115

3.4.3

Livestock farming

116

Delay mowing date on grasslands

116

Leave uncut rye grass in silage fields

117

Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland

117

Maintain traditional water meadows

117

Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality

118

Plant cereals for whole crop silage

118

Reduce grazing intensity

118

Reduce management intensity of permanent grasslands

119

Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat

119

Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland

119

Maintain upland heath/moor

120

Protect nests from livestock to reduce trampling

120

Provide short grass for waders

120

Raise mowing height on grasslands

120

Use traditional breeds of livestock

121

Maintain lowland heathland

121

Maintain rush pastures

121

Maintain wood pasture and parkland

121

Plant Brassica fodder crops

121

Use mixed stocking

121

3.4.4

Perennial, non-timber crops

121

Maintain traditional orchards

121

Manage perennial bioenergy crops to benefit wildlife

122

3.4.5

Aquaculture

122

Deter birds from landing on shellfish culture gear

123

Disturb birds at roosts

123

Provide refuges for fish within ponds

123

Use electric fencing to exclude fish-eating birds

123

Use ‘mussel socks’ to prevent birds from attacking shellfish

124

Use netting to exclude fish-eating birds

124

Increase water turbidity to reduce fish predation by birds

124

Translocate birds away from fish farms

124

Use in-water devices to reduce fish loss from ponds

124

Disturb birds using foot patrols

125

Spray water to deter birds from ponds

125

Scare birds from fish farms

125

3.5

Threat: Energy production and mining

126

Paint wind turbines to increase their visibility

126

3.6

Threat: Transportation and service corridors

127

3.6.1

Verges and airports

127

Scare or otherwise deter birds from airports

127

Mow roadside verges

127

Sow roadside verges

128

3.6.2

Power lines and electricity pylons

128

Mark power lines

128

Bury or isolate power lines

129

Insulate electricity pylons

129

Remove earth wires from power lines

129

Use perch-deterrent lines

129

Thicken earth wires

129

Add perches to electricity pylons

130

Reduce electrocutions by using plastic, not metal, leg rings to mark birds

130

Use raptor models to deter birds from power lines

130

3.7

Threat: Biological resource use

131

3.7.1

Reducing exploitation and conflict

131

Scare fish-eating birds from areas to reduce conflict

131

Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations

132

Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting disturbance

132

Employ local people as ‘biomonitors’

132

Increase ‘on-the-ground’ protection to reduce unsustainable levels of exploitation

132

Introduce voluntary ‘maximum shoot distances’

133

Mark eggs to reduce their appeal to collectors

133

Move fish-eating birds to reduce conflict with fishermen

133

Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods

133

Provide ‘sacrificial grasslands’ to reduce conflict with farmers

134

Relocate nestlings to reduce poaching

134

Use education programmes and local engagement to help reduce persecution or exploitation of species

134

Use alerts during shoots to reduce mortality of non-target species

134

3.7.2

Reducing fisheries bycatch

135

Use streamer lines to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines

136

Mark trawler warp cables to reduce seabird collisions

136

Reduce seabird bycatch by releasing offal overboard when setting longlines

137

Weight baits or lines to reduce longline bycatch of seabirds

137

Set lines underwater to reduce seabird bycatch

137

Set longlines at night to reduce seabird bycatch

137

Dye baits to reduce seabird bycatch

138

Thaw bait before setting lines to reduce seabird bycatch

138

Turn deck lights off during night-time setting of longlines to reduce bycatch

138

Use a sonic scarer when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch

138

Use acoustic alerts on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch

138

Use bait throwers to reduce seabird bycatch

139

Use bird exclusion devices such as ‘Brickle curtains’ to reduce seabird mortality when hauling longlines

139

Use high visibility mesh on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch

139

Use shark liver oil to deter birds when setting lines

139

Use a line shooter to reduce seabird bycatch

140

Reduce bycatch through seasonal or area closures

140

Reduce ‘ghost fishing’ by lost/discarded gear

140

Reduce gillnet deployment time to reduce seabird bycatch

140

Set longlines at the side of the boat to reduce seabird bycatch

140

Tow buoys behind longlining boats to reduce seabird bycatch

140

Use a water cannon when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch

140

Use high-visibility longlines to reduce seabird bycatch

140

Use larger hooks to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines

140

3.8

Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance

141

Provide paths to limit disturbance

141

Start educational programmes for personal watercraft owners

142

Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance at nest sites

142

Use voluntary agreements with local people to reduce disturbance

142

Habituate birds to human visitors

142

Use nest covers to reduce the impact of research on predation of ground-nesting seabirds

143

Reduce visitor group sizes

143

Set minimum distances for approaching birds (buffer zones)

143

3.9

Threat: Natural system modifications

144

Create scrapes and pools in wetlands and wet grasslands

146

Provide deadwood/snags in forests (use ring-barking, cutting or silvicides)

146

Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting

146

Clear or open patches in forests

147

Employ grazing in artificial grasslands/pastures

147

Employ grazing in natural grasslands

147

Employ grazing in non-grassland habitats

148

Manage water level in wetlands

148

Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (forests)

148

Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (mowing or cutting natural grasslands)

149

Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (mowing or cutting semi-natural grasslands/pastures)

149

Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (shrublands)

150

Raise water levels in ditches or grassland

150

Thin trees within forests

150

Use prescribed burning (grasslands)

151

Use prescribed burning (pine forests)

151

Use prescribed burning (savannahs)

152

Use prescribed burning (shrublands)

152

Use selective harvesting/logging instead of clearcutting

152

Clearcut and re-seed forests

153

Coppice trees

153

Fertilise grasslands

153

Manage woodland edges for birds

154

Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (reedbeds)

154

Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (savannahs)

154

Plant trees to act as windbreaks

154

Plough habitats

155

Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests)

155

Remove coarse woody debris from forests

155

Replace non-native species of tree/shrub

155

Re-seed grasslands

156

Use environmentally sensitive flood management

156

Use fire suppression/control

156

Use greentree reservoir management

156

Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest)

157

Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting

157

Use variable retention management during forestry operations

157

Apply herbicide to mid- and understorey vegetation

157

Treat wetlands with herbicides

158

Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats)

158

Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests)

158

Protect nest trees before burning

159

3.10

Habitat restoration and creation

160

Restore or create forests

160

Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands)

161

Restore or create grassland

161

Restore or create traditional water meadows

162

Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands)

162

Restore or create shrubland

162

Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests)

163

Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons)

163

Restore or create savannahs

163

Revegetate gravel pits

163

3.11

Threat: Invasive alien and other problematic species

164

3.11.1

Reduce predation by other species

164

Control mammalian predators on islands

164

Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities

165

Control avian predators on islands

165

Control invasive ants on islands

165

Reduce predation by translocating predators

166

Control predators not on islands

166

3.11.2

Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control

167

Distribute poison bait using dispensers

167

Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control

167

Use repellents on baits

167

Do birds take bait designed for pest control?

168

3.11.3

Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas

168

Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing

169

Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks

169

Protect bird nests using electric fencing

169

Use artificial nests that discourage predation

170

Guard nests to prevent predation

170

Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation

170

Protect nests from ants

170

Use multiple barriers to protect nests

171

Use naphthalene to deter mammalian predators

171

Use snakeskin to deter mammalian nest predators

171

Play spoken-word radio programs to deter predators

171

Use ‘cat curfews’ to reduce predation

171

Use lion dung to deter domestic cats

171

Use mirrors to deter nest predators

171

Use ultrasonic devices to deter cats

171

Can nest protection increase nest abandonment?

172

Can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks?

172

3.11.4

Reduce mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behaviour

172

Reduce predation by translocating nest boxes

173

Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation

173

Use supplementary feeding to reduce predation

173

Use aversive conditioning to reduce nest predation

173

3.11.5

Reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites

174

Reduce inter-specific competition for food by removing or controlling competitor species

174

Protect nest sites from competitors

175

Reduce competition between species by providing nest boxes

175

Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by modifying habitats to exclude competitor species

175

Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (ground nesting seabirds)

176

Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (songbirds)

176

Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (woodpeckers)

176

3.11.6

Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species

177

Control or remove habitat-altering mammals

177

Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (terrestrial species)

177

Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (aquatic species)

178

Remove problematic vegetation

178

Use buffer zones to reduce the impact of invasive plant control

178

3.11.7

Reduce parasitism and disease

179

Remove/control adult brood parasites

179

Remove/treat endoparasites and diseases

180

Alter artificial nest sites to discourage brood parasitism

180

Exclude or control ‘reservoir species’ to reduce parasite burdens

180

Remove brood parasite eggs from target species’ nests

180

Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (provide beneficial nesting material)

181

Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from feathers)

181

Use false brood parasite eggs to discourage brood parasitism

181

Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from nests)

181

3.11.8

Reduce detrimental impacts of other problematic species

182

Use copper strips to exclude snails from nests

182

3.12

Threat: Pollution

183

3.12.1

Industrial pollution

183

Use visual and acoustic ‘scarers’ to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining or sewage

183

Relocate birds following oil spills

184

Use repellents to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining

184

Clean birds after oil spills

184

3.12.2

Agricultural pollution

185

Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)

185

Provide food for vultures to reduce mortality from diclofenac

186

Reduce pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use generally

186

Reduce chemical inputs in permanent grassland management

186

Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals

186

Make selective use of spring herbicides

187

Provide buffer strips along rivers and streams

187

Provide unfertilised cereal headlands in arable fields

187

Use buffer strips around in-field ponds

187

Use organic rather than mineral fertilisers

187

3.12.3

Air-borne pollutants

187

Use lime to reduce acidification in lakes

187

3.12.4

Excess energy

188

Shield lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights

188

Turning off lights

188

Use flashing lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights

188

Use lights low in spectral red to reduce mortality from artificial lights

189

Reduce the intensity of lighthouse beams

189

Using volunteers to collect and rehabilitate downed birds

189

3.13

Threat: Climate change, extreme weather and geological events

190

Replace nesting habitats when they are washed away by storms

190

Water nests during droughts

191

3.14

General responses to small/declining populations

192

3.14.1

Inducing breeding, rehabilitation and egg removal

192

Rehabilitate injured birds

192

Remove eggs from wild nests to increase reproductive output

193

Use artificial visual and auditory stimuli to induce breeding in wild populations

193

3.14.2

Provide artificial nesting sites

193

Provide artificial nests (falcons)

194

Provide artificial nests (owls)

195

Provide artificial nests (songbirds)

195

Provide artificial nests (wildfowl)

196

Clean artificial nests to increase occupancy or reproductive success

196

Provide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds)

197

Provide artificial nests (divers/loons)

197

Provide artificial nests (ground- and tree-nesting seabirds)

197

Provide artificial nests (oilbirds)

198

Provide artificial nests (raptors)

198

Provide artificial nests (wildfowl – artificial/floating islands)

198

Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests

198

Guard nests

199

Provide artificial nests (gamebirds)

199

Provide artificial nests (grebes)

199

Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos)

199

Provide artificial nests (parrots)

199

Provide artificial nests (pigeons)

200

Provide artificial nests (rails)

200

Provide artificial nests (rollers)

200

Provide artificial nests (swifts)

200

Provide artificial nests (trogons)

201

Provide artificial nests (waders)

201

Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers)

201

Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather

201

Provide nesting material for wild birds

202

Remove vegetation to create nesting areas

202

Repair/support nests to support breeding

202

Use differently-coloured artificial nests

202

3.14.3

Foster chicks in the wild

203

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (raptors)

203

Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (songbirds)

204

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (bustards)

204

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (cranes)

204

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (gannets and boobies)

204

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (owls)

205

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (parrots)

205

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (vultures)

205

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (waders)

205

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (woodpeckers)

206

Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (cranes)

206

Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (ibises)

206

Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (petrels and shearwaters)

206

Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (waders)

206

3.14.4

Provide supplementary food

207

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (songbirds)

209

Place feeders close to windows to reduce collisions

209

Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success

210

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (cranes)

210

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gulls, terns and skuas)

210

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (owls)

210

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (raptors)

211

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (songbirds)

211

Provide perches to improve foraging success

212

Provide supplementary food through the establishment of food populations

212

Provide supplementary food to allow the rescue of a second chick

213

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gamebirds)

213

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gulls, terns and skuas)

213

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (hummingbirds)

213

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (nectar-feeding songbirds)

214

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (pigeons)

214

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (raptors)

214

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (vultures)

215

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (waders)

215

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (wildfowl)

215

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (woodpeckers)

215

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (auks)

216

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gamebirds)

216

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gannets and boobies)

216

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (ibises)

217

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (kingfishers)

217

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (parrots)

217

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (petrels)

217

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (pigeons)

218

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (rails and coots)

218

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (vultures)

218

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (waders)

219

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (wildfowl)

219

Provide supplementary water to increase survival or reproductive success

219

3.14.5

Translocations

219

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (birds in general)

221

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (raptors)

221

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (parrots)

221

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (pelicans)

221

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (petrels and shearwaters)

222

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (rails)

222

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (songbirds)

222

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (wildfowl)

222

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (woodpeckers)

223

Use decoys to attract birds to new sites

223

Use techniques to increase the survival of species after capture

223

Use vocalisations to attract birds to new sites

224

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (gamebirds)

224

Alter habitats to encourage birds to leave

224

Ensure translocated birds are familiar with each other before release

224

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (auks)

225

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (herons, storks and ibises)

225

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (megapodes)

225

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (owls)

225

Translocate nests to avoid disturbance

226

Ensure genetic variation to increase translocation success

226

3.15

Captive breeding, rearing and releases (ex situ conservation)

227

3.15.1

Captive breeding

227

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors)

229

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds)

229

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds)

229

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders)

230

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors)

230

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards)

230

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes)

231

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds)

231

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots)

231

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins)

231

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails)

232

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises)

232

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (vultures)

232

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (wildfowl)

232

Freeze semen for artificial insemination

233

Use artificial insemination in captive breeding

233

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (bustards)

233

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (cranes)

234

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (pigeons)

234

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (rails)

234

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (seabirds)

234

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (songbirds)

234

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (storks and ibises)

235

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (tinamous)

235

Use puppets to increase the success of hand-rearing

235

Wash contaminated semen and use it for artificial insemination

236

Can captive breeding have deleterious effects on individual fitness?

236

3.15.2

Release captive-bred individuals

236

Provide supplementary food during and after release