7. Tense, Aspect and Modality

This chapter investigates how Etulo handles tense, aspect, and modality (TAM), situating its system typologically in relation to claims by scholars such as Bhat (1999) and Comrie (1976). In Etulo, tense is minimal: there is a two-way contrast between future vs non-future (the latter covering both present and past, depending on whether verbs are dynamic or stative). Aspectual values (such as habitual, perfect, progressive) are explicitly marked with dedicated particles, rather than being fused into tense. Some morphemes combine, for example the future/irrealis marker ka can co-occur with the progressive marker le, and with modals to generate nuanced meanings; habitual lí may generate generics or ongoing states, often interacting with time adverbials, and perfect wà signals completed events whose effects persist. Meanwhile, certain forms like téjî function more like optional time adverbials reinforcing past reference rather than as core grammaticalised tense markers.

On modality, Etulo uses a range of morphemes to signal hypothetical, hortative, probability, and negative imperatives, with some of them co-occurring with the future/irrealis marker ka to express more complex modal readings. The system reveals that while Etulo does not richly inflect for tense (beyond future vs non-future), it achieves fine-grained temporal, aspectual and modal distinctions through the use of particles, combinatory morphology, and context. The language thereby provides a case study of how a TAM system can give primacy to aspect and modality, with tense playing a relatively limited but still crucial role.